อภิธานศัพท์กฎหมาย

คำนิยามเป็นภาษาง่ายของคำศัพท์กฎหมายทั่วไป

1017 terms

A

พระราชบัญญัติ Constitutional Law: A law (statute) that has been passed by both Houses of Parliament and received Royal Assent.
Actus Reus Criminal Law: The physical element of a crime — the guilty act. It may consist of an act, an omission (where there is a duty to act), or a state of affairs. The actus reus must be voluntary.
Adverse Possession Land Law: The acquisition of title to land by occupying it for a prescribed period (12 years for unregistered land; a 10-year application process for registered land under the Land Registration Act 2002) without the owner's permission.
Affidavit: A written statement of facts confirmed by the oath or affirmation of the person making it. Used as evidence in court proceedings, particularly in applications without a hearing.
Arraignment Criminal Law: The procedure at the start of a Crown Court trial where the charges on the indictment are read to the defendant, who is asked to plead guilty or not guilty.
สถานะผู้ลี้ภัย Immigration & Asylum Law: International protection granted to a person who has a well-founded fear of persecution in their home country for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, under the 1951 Refugee Convention.
Audi Alteram Partem Administrative & Public Law: Latin: 'hear the other side'. A principle of natural justice requiring that both parties to a dispute be given a fair opportunity to present their case before a decision is made.
Ab Initio: Latin: 'from the beginning'. Used to describe something that is void or invalid from the start. A void contract is void ab initio — it has no legal effect from the moment it was purportedly made.
Authorised Person Banking & Finance Law: A person who has permission from the FCA (or PRA) to carry on regulated activities in the UK under the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000.
Abuse of Dominance Competition Law: Conduct by an undertaking with a dominant market position that amounts to abuse, prohibited by Chapter II of the Competition Act 1998. Examples include predatory pricing, refusal to supply, and tying.
การวินิจฉัยชี้ขาด Construction Law: A rapid interim dispute resolution mechanism under the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996, providing a binding decision within 28 days for construction disputes.
การลงทะเบียนอัตโนมัติ Pensions Law: The legal requirement under the Pensions Act 2008 for employers to automatically enrol eligible jobholders into a qualifying workplace pension scheme and make minimum contributions.
Arbitration Agreement Arbitration & ADR: An agreement to submit present or future disputes to arbitration. Must be in writing (Arbitration Act 1996, s.5). Gives rise to a mandatory stay of court proceedings (s.9).
คำชี้ขาดอนุญาโตตุลาการ Arbitration & ADR: The decision of an arbitral tribunal. Awards are final and binding (subject to limited rights of appeal) and enforceable as court judgments (Arbitration Act 1996, s.66).
Anticipatory Breach Contract Law: A breach of contract occurring before the time for performance, where one party clearly indicates (by words or conduct) that they will not perform their contractual obligations. The innocent party can sue immediately or wait for the performance date (Hochster v De La Tour [1853]).
Arraignment Criminal Law: The process in the Crown Court at which the indictment is put to the defendant and they are asked to plead guilty or not guilty. The arraignment formally begins the trial process.
Administration Order Insolvency & Restructuring Law: An order placing a company into administration under the Insolvency Act 1986, Schedule B1. The administrator manages the company's affairs with the objective of rescuing the company as a going concern, achieving a better result for creditors than winding up, or realising property for secured or preferential creditors.
Assignment Contract Law: The transfer of a right or benefit under a contract from one party (the assignor) to a third party (the assignee). The assignee acquires the right to receive performance from the other contracting party. Assignment of contractual rights is generally permitted unless the contract prohibits it. Governed by s.136 of the Law of Property Act 1925 (legal assignment) and equity (equitable assignment).
Assured Shorthold Tenancy Landlord & Tenant: The default form of residential tenancy in England & Wales since 28 February 1997, created by the Housing Act 1988 (as amended). The landlord has the right to recover possession at the end of the fixed term by serving a section 21 notice (no-fault eviction), subject to procedural requirements including deposit protection.
Account of Profits Equity & Trusts: An equitable remedy requiring the wrongdoer to pay over profits made from the wrongful act. In contract law, available in exceptional circumstances following Attorney General v Blake [2001]. In intellectual property and breach of fiduciary duty cases, it is a standard remedy.
Administration (Insolvency) Insolvency Law: A formal insolvency procedure under the Insolvency Act 1986 (Schedule B1) designed to rescue a company as a going concern, achieve a better result for creditors than winding up, or realise property for secured or preferential creditors. An administrator is appointed and a moratorium prevents creditor action.
Attorney General's Reference Criminal Law: A procedure by which the Attorney General can refer a point of law to the Court of Appeal following an acquittal, or can refer an unduly lenient sentence to be reviewed. The acquittal is not affected; the reference clarifies the law for future cases.
Affray Criminal Law: Using or threatening unlawful violence towards another such that a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene would fear for their personal safety (s.3 Public Order Act 1986). An either-way offence with a maximum of 3 years' imprisonment.
ABH (Actual Bodily Harm) Criminal Law: An offence under s.47 Offences Against the Person Act 1861. Assault occasioning actual bodily harm — any hurt or injury calculated to interfere with the health or comfort of the victim. Includes psychiatric injury. Maximum 5 years' imprisonment.
Automatism Criminal Law: A defence in criminal law where the defendant's body acted without the control of the conscious mind — an involuntary act. Distinguished from insanity (insane automatism — internal cause) and non-insane automatism (external cause, e.g., a blow to the head). If successful, results in acquittal.
Accounting Officer Administrative & Public Law: The senior official in a government department or public body who is personally responsible for the propriety and regularity of public finances and for value for money. Usually the Permanent Secretary.
Approved Mental Health Professional Mental Health Law: A professional (usually a social worker) approved to carry out functions under the Mental Health Act 1983, including making applications for compulsory admission to hospital.
ผู้ใหญ่ที่เหมาะสม Criminal Law: A person who must be present during the interview of a juvenile or vulnerable adult in police custody. Usually a parent, guardian, social worker, or trained volunteer.
Allocations Scheme Housing Law: A scheme that every local housing authority must have under Part VI Housing Act 1996, governing how social housing is allocated. Must give reasonable preference to specified categories.
Anticipatory Breach Contract Law: A breach of contract occurring before performance is due, where one party indicates by words or conduct that they will not perform their obligations. The innocent party may treat the contract as repudiated immediately or await performance.
Automatism Criminal Law: A defence where the defendant's act was involuntary because of a total loss of control caused by an external factor (e.g., a blow to the head, insect sting). Distinguished from insane automatism (internal cause), which is the M'Naghten defence.
Articles of Association Company & Commercial Law: The constitutional document of a company setting out the internal rules for running the company, including directors' powers, shareholder meetings, and transfer of shares.
Absolute Right Human Rights Law: A Convention right that cannot be limited or restricted in any circumstances. Article 3 (prohibition of torture) is absolute. Contrasted with qualified rights (Articles 8-11) and limited rights (Article 5).
Allocation Evidence & Procedure: The process by which a civil claim is assigned to one of three tracks: small claims (up to £10,000), fast track (£10,000-£25,000), or multi-track (over £25,000 or complex cases). The court considers the value, complexity, and likely trial length.
การบริหารจัดการ (ล้มละลาย) Insolvency Law: A corporate insolvency procedure under the Insolvency Act 1986 (Schedule B1) providing a moratorium to rescue a company as a going concern, achieve a better result for creditors, or realise assets for distribution. The administrator is an officer of the court.
การวินิจฉัยชี้ขาด Construction Law: A rapid dispute resolution process, particularly important in construction (Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996). The adjudicator must reach a decision within 28 days. The decision is binding on an interim basis.
การบริหารจัดการ (ล้มละลาย) Company & Commercial Law: An insolvency procedure where an administrator is appointed to manage a company with the objective of rescuing it as a going concern, achieving a better result for creditors than winding up, or realising property for distribution. The company is protected by a moratorium preventing creditor action (Insolvency Act 1986, Schedule B1).
ปัจจัยเพิ่มโทษ Criminal Law: A circumstance that increases the seriousness of an offence for sentencing purposes, such as previous convictions, use of a weapon, vulnerability of the victim, or commission of the offence while on bail.
Ancillary Relief Family Law: Now called 'financial remedies' — orders made by the court on divorce for the division of matrimonial assets, including lump sum orders, property adjustment orders, pension sharing orders, and periodical payments (Matrimonial Causes Act 1973, ss.23-25).
สถานะผู้ลี้ภัย Immigration Law: International protection granted to a person who has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion (1951 Refugee Convention, as applied by the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002).
Abuse of Dominance Competition Law: Conduct by an undertaking holding a dominant position in a market that exploits that position unfairly (e.g., excessive pricing, refusal to supply, predatory pricing). Prohibited by Competition Act 1998, s.18 (Chapter II prohibition) and Article 102 TFEU.
Anti-Competitive Agreement Competition Law: An agreement between undertakings, decision by an association, or concerted practice that has as its object or effect the prevention, restriction, or distortion of competition. Prohibited by Competition Act 1998, s.2 (Chapter I prohibition).
Assured Shorthold Tenancy Housing Law: The standard form of private residential tenancy in England since Housing Act 1996. The landlord has the right to recover possession after the fixed term using a section 21 notice. ASTs must comply with tenancy deposit protection requirements.
การเช่าแบบรับประกัน Housing Law: A residential tenancy under Housing Act 1988 where the tenant has security of tenure. The landlord may only recover possession by proving one of the statutory grounds in Schedule 2 and obtaining a court order.
Accrued Benefits Pensions: Pension benefits that a member has already built up in a defined benefit scheme, based on service completed and pensionable salary to date. Protected rights that cannot generally be reduced without member consent.
Automatic Enrolment Pensions: The legal requirement under Pensions Act 2008 for employers to automatically enrol eligible workers into a qualifying workplace pension scheme and make minimum contributions.
Attendance Allowance Welfare: A non-means-tested, non-contributory benefit for people aged 65+ who need help with personal care due to physical or mental disability. Paid at lower or higher rate depending on care needs.
ขาดหนีราชการ Military Law: Absent Without Official Leave. A service offence under section 9 of the Armed Forces Act 2006 committed when a person fails to attend at their place of duty without authority.
Approved Mental Health Professional Mental Health Law: A specially trained professional (usually a social worker) authorised to carry out assessments and make applications for compulsory admission under the Mental Health Act 1983. The AMHP replaced the Approved Social Worker role.
ผู้ใหญ่ที่เหมาะสม Police Powers: A person (parent, guardian, social worker, or other responsible adult) required to be present during the detention and questioning of a juvenile or mentally vulnerable suspect to safeguard their rights and welfare (PACE Code C).
ปัจจัยเพิ่มโทษ Sentencing: A factor that increases the seriousness of an offence for sentencing purposes. Statutory aggravating factors include previous convictions and the offence being committed while on bail. The Sentencing Council guidelines list common aggravating factors for each offence.
ผู้รับผิดชอบ Building Safety: Under the Building Safety Act 2022, the person or entity with a legal obligation to assess and manage building safety risks in a higher-risk building. Usually the freeholder or management company.
การเช่าแบบรับประกัน Social Housing: A tenancy under the Housing Act 1988 where a private or housing association tenant has security of tenure. The landlord can only recover possession on specified grounds and with a court order.
การบริหารจัดการ (ล้มละลาย) Insolvency & Restructuring Law: An insolvency procedure under Schedule B1 of the Insolvency Act 1986 designed to rescue a company as a going concern or achieve a better result for creditors than liquidation.
การคุ้มครอง ATOL Aviation & Transport Law: Air Travel Organisers' Licensing — a scheme protecting customers of travel companies that fail, ensuring refunds or repatriation. Required for package holidays and flight-inclusive bookings from UK-based companies.
การยกเว้นโดยเด็ดขาด Information Law: Under the Freedom of Information Act 2000, an exemption from disclosure that is not subject to the public interest test (e.g., information accessible by other means, court records, parliamentary privilege).
ใบอนุญาตสูบน้ำ Water & Sewerage Law: A licence required under the Water Resources Act 1991 to abstract water from rivers, lakes, or underground sources above specified thresholds. Granted by the Environment Agency.
การลงทะเบียนอัตโนมัติ Pensions Law: The legal requirement for employers to automatically enrol eligible workers into a qualifying workplace pension scheme and make minimum contributions (Pensions Act 2008).
คำชี้ขาดอนุญาโตตุลาการ Arbitration & ADR: A binding decision made by an arbitral tribunal resolving a dispute. Awards are enforceable as court judgments; international awards are enforceable under the New York Convention 1958.
การละเมิดกฎต่อต้านสารกระตุ้น Sports Law: A breach of anti-doping rules including the presence of a prohibited substance, refusal to submit to testing, or tampering. Strict liability applies — intent is not required to establish a violation.
ผู้ใหญ่ที่เหมาะสม Police Powers: A person required to attend the police station when a juvenile (under 18) or vulnerable adult is detained or interviewed. Ensures the detainee understands the process and their rights.
ใบอนุญาตสูบน้ำ Water & Sewerage Law: A licence required under the Water Resources Act 1991 to remove water from rivers, lakes, or underground sources. Issued by the Environment Agency.
การป้องกันการฟอกเงิน Banking & Finance Law: Legal obligations on regulated businesses (including banks) to identify, report, and prevent money laundering under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 and the Money Laundering Regulations 2017.
การวินิจฉัยชี้ขาด Construction Law: A rapid interim dispute resolution mechanism used primarily in construction. An adjudicator must reach a decision within 28 days. The decision is binding until finally determined by arbitration or litigation.
การใช้อำนาจเหนือตลาดในทางที่ผิด Competition Law: Conduct by an undertaking holding a dominant market position that is abusive, such as excessive pricing, refusal to supply, or tying. Prohibited by s.18 Competition Act 1998 (Chapter II prohibition).
การคุ้มครอง ATOL Aviation & Transport Law: The Air Travel Organiser's Licensing scheme administered by the CAA. Protects consumers who book package holidays or flights-inclusive arrangements from UK travel companies. If the company fails, ATOL ensures refund or repatriation.
Assured Shorthold Tenancy (AST) Landlord & Tenant Law: The default residential tenancy since the Housing Act 1996. Provides limited security of tenure; the landlord can recover possession using a section 21 notice (no-fault) or section 8 notice (fault-based grounds).
การตัดสินใจล่วงหน้า Court of Protection: A decision made by a person with capacity to refuse specific medical treatment in the future if they lose capacity. Must be valid (made voluntarily by a person over 18 with capacity) and applicable to the treatment in question. If refusing life-sustaining treatment, must be written, signed, and witnessed.
ความรับผิดชอบของอัลกอริทึม AI & Technology Law: The principle that organisations deploying algorithmic decision-making systems should be responsible for their outcomes, including bias, errors, and discrimination. Emerging area of regulation in the UK.
การตัดสินใจอัตโนมัติ AI & Technology Law: Decisions made solely by automated means without human involvement, restricted under Article 22 UK GDPR. Data subjects have the right not to be subject to decisions based solely on automated processing that produce legal or significant effects.
สถาบันความปลอดภัย AI AI & Technology Law: UK government body (established 2023) responsible for evaluating the safety of frontier AI models. Part of the UK's 'pro-innovation' regulatory approach to AI governance.

B

ทนายความว่าความ: A lawyer who is qualified to represent clients in the higher courts (Crown Court, High Court, Court of Appeal, Supreme Court) and specialises in advocacy and legal opinions.
ภาระการพิสูจน์ Evidence & Procedure: The obligation on a party to prove the facts in issue. In criminal cases, the prosecution must prove guilt beyond reasonable doubt. In civil cases, the claimant must prove their case on the balance of probabilities.
ประกันตัว Criminal Law: The release of a defendant from custody before trial, subject to conditions. The court must consider the risk of absconding, committing further offences, or interfering with witnesses (Bail Act 1976).
ประโยชน์สูงสุด Medical & Healthcare Law: The guiding principle under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 for decisions made on behalf of adults who lack capacity. The decision-maker must consider the person's wishes, feelings, beliefs, and values.
Benefit Sanction Social Welfare & Benefits Law: A reduction or suspension of Universal Credit for failure to meet work-related requirements (e.g., missing a Jobcentre appointment or not applying for jobs).
ใบตราส่งสินค้า Maritime & Shipping Law: A document issued by a carrier to a shipper, serving as a receipt for goods, evidence of the contract of carriage, and a document of title to the goods.
ประกันตัว Criminal Law: The release of a person accused of a crime, subject to conditions, pending their trial or next court appearance. Bail may be unconditional or subject to conditions such as a curfew, residence requirement, or surrender of passport. The Bail Act 1976 creates a general right to bail.
Beneficial Interest Property Law: The right to enjoy the benefits of property held on trust, as distinct from the legal title. A beneficial interest arises where property is held by trustees for the benefit of beneficiaries. In property disputes between cohabitants, beneficial interests in the family home are often established through resulting or constructive trusts (Stack v Dowden [2007], Jones v Kernott [2011]).
Building Safety Regulator Construction Law: A body established within the Health and Safety Executive by the Building Safety Act 2022, responsible for overseeing the safety of higher-risk buildings (residential buildings at least 18m or 7 storeys high). The BSR acts as the building control authority for higher-risk buildings during design and construction, and oversees the ongoing safety management of occupied higher-risk buildings.
Basic Intent Criminal Law: A criminal offence that can be committed recklessly (without specific intention), such as assault, ABH, criminal damage, and manslaughter. Voluntary intoxication is not a defence to basic intent offences (DPP v Majewski [1977]).
Biodiversity Net Gain Environmental Law: A requirement under the Environment Act 2021 that developers must deliver at least a 10% increase in biodiversity value as a condition of planning permission. Measured using the biodiversity metric, gains must be maintained for at least 30 years.
Bolam Test Tort Law: The standard of care in clinical negligence: a doctor is not negligent if they act in accordance with a practice accepted as proper by a responsible body of medical opinion (Bolam v Friern Hospital [1957]). Qualified by Bolitho [1998] — the practice must withstand logical analysis.
Balance of Probabilities Evidence & Procedure: The standard of proof in civil proceedings. A fact is proved if the court considers it more likely than not to have occurred (i.e. more than 50% likely). Confirmed in Re B (Children) [2008] as the single standard in family proceedings with no 'heightened' version for serious allegations.
Bona Fide Purchaser Land Law: A purchaser who acquires a legal estate in good faith, for value, and without notice of any prior equitable interest. Known as 'Equity's Darling', such a purchaser takes free of equitable interests. Under the LRA 2002, registration largely replaces the notice doctrine.
Battery Criminal Law: The application of unlawful force to another person. The force need not be hostile; the slightest touching suffices if done without consent. Part of common assault under s.39 CJA 1988.
Burial Rights Administrative & Public Law: The right to be buried in a churchyard (for parishioners) or a local authority cemetery. There is no common law right to choose one's place of burial — the executor or administrator decides.
But-For Test Tort Law: The primary test for factual causation in tort: the defendant's breach caused the damage if, but for the breach, the damage would not have occurred (Barnett v Chelsea and Kensington Hospital [1969]).
Beneficial Interest Land Law: The equitable interest in property held by a beneficiary under a trust. In land law, co-owners may hold the legal estate as joint tenants while holding the beneficial interest in different shares.
Banker's Duty of Confidentiality Banking & Finance: The duty owed by a bank to its customer not to disclose information about the customer's account. Subject to four exceptions: compulsion of law, duty to the public, interests of the bank, customer's consent (Tournier v National Provincial [1924]).
Block Exemption Competition Law: A regulation that exempts certain categories of agreements from the prohibition on anti-competitive agreements. UK block exemptions cover vertical agreements, R&D agreements, and technology transfer agreements where conditions are met.
ประมวลกฎหมายการแพร่ภาพกระจายเสียง Broadcasting: The Ofcom Broadcasting Code setting standards for television and radio content. Covers protecting under-18s, harm and offence, crime, religion, impartiality, accuracy, elections, fairness, and privacy.
Benefit Cap Welfare: A limit under Welfare Reform Act 2012 on the total amount of benefit a working-age household can receive (£20,000 outside London, £23,000 in London). Some benefits including PIP and DLA are exempt.
ใบตราส่งสินค้า Maritime Law: A document issued by a carrier acknowledging receipt of goods for shipment. It serves as a receipt, evidence of the contract of carriage, and a document of title to the goods.
คำสั่งห้ามเข้าสนาม Sports Law: An order made by a court under the Football Spectators Act 1989 prohibiting a person convicted of a football-related offence from attending regulated football matches for a specified period.
การติดสินบน Fraud & Economic Crime: The offence of offering, promising, or giving a financial or other advantage to induce a person to perform a relevant function improperly (s.1 Bribery Act 2010). Also includes the offence of being bribed (s.2) and the corporate offence of failure to prevent bribery (s.7).
ประมวลกฎหมายการแพร่ภาพกระจายเสียง Media & Entertainment Law: Ofcom's code setting standards for broadcast content, covering impartiality, accuracy, harm and offence, privacy, fairness, and the protection of children.
หน้าที่คุ้มค่าที่สุด Local Government Law: The duty under s.3 Local Government Act 1999 requiring local authorities to make arrangements to secure continuous improvement in the way they exercise their functions, having regard to economy, efficiency, and effectiveness.
ข้อบัญญัติท้องถิ่น Local Government Law: A regulation made by a local authority for the good governance of its area, covering matters such as public order, parks, and waste. Must be confirmed by the relevant Secretary of State.
หน้าที่คุ้มค่าที่สุด Local Government Law: The duty on local authorities to make arrangements to secure continuous improvement in the way they exercise their functions, having regard to economy, efficiency, and effectiveness.

C

กฎหมายจากคำพิพากษา: Law established by the outcome of former court cases. Also known as common law or judge-made law, it operates through the doctrine of precedent.
โจทก์ Evidence & Procedure: The person who brings a civil action (formerly known as the plaintiff).
กฎหมายจารีตประเพณี: Law developed by judges through decisions of courts, as distinct from statute law enacted by Parliament. England & Wales has a common law legal system.
Consideration Contract Law: Something of value (money, a promise, an act, or forbearance) given by each party to a contract. A contract is not enforceable without consideration (unless made by deed).
Caveat Emptor Contract Law: Latin: 'let the buyer beware'. The principle that the buyer takes the risk regarding the quality and condition of goods or property purchased, unless protected by warranty or statute.
Certiorari Administrative & Public Law: A prerogative remedy (now called a 'quashing order') by which the High Court quashes a decision of an inferior court, tribunal, or public body that has acted unlawfully.
Contributory Negligence Tort Law: A partial defence reducing the claimant's damages where the claimant's own negligence contributed to their loss. Governed by the Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945.
Covenant Land Law: A promise contained in a deed. In land law, covenants may be positive (requiring action) or restrictive (prohibiting action). Restrictive covenants can bind successors in title.
Cross-Examination: The questioning of a witness by the opposing party after examination-in-chief. Its purpose is to test the witness's evidence and credibility.
Constructive Trust Equity & Trusts: A trust imposed by equity regardless of the parties' intentions, to prevent unconscionable conduct. Arises in various circumstances including breach of fiduciary duty, common intention regarding property, and secret trusts.
Capital Gains Tax (CGT) Tax Law: A tax charged on the profit (gain) arising from the disposal of an asset. Annual exemption applies. The rate depends on the type of asset and the taxpayer's income level.
ลิขสิทธิ์ Intellectual Property: An automatic intellectual property right protecting original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works. No registration required in the UK. Lasts for the author's life plus 70 years (Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988).
ความประมาทเลินเล่อทางการแพทย์ Medical & Healthcare Law: A tort claim arising when a healthcare professional's treatment falls below the standard of a responsible body of medical opinion (Bolam test), as modified by the requirement for logical defensibility (Bolitho), causing harm to the patient.
Cooling-Off Period Consumer Protection Law: A period (typically 14 days) during which a consumer may cancel a distance or off-premises contract without giving any reason, under the Consumer Contracts Regulations 2013.
การรวมหัวกันผูกขาด Competition Law: An agreement between competing firms to fix prices, share markets, rig bids, or limit output. Hardcore cartels are prohibited under Chapter I of the Competition Act 1998 and may constitute the criminal cartel offence under the Enterprise Act 2002.
วัตถุประสงค์การกุศล Charity & Not-for-Profit Law: A purpose falling within one of the 13 descriptions in s.3 Charities Act 2011, including prevention of poverty, advancement of education, advancement of religion, and promotion of health.
องค์กรการกุศลจดทะเบียน Charity & Not-for-Profit Law: Charitable Incorporated Organisation: a legal form for charities providing limited liability without the dual regulation burden of a charitable company. Registered with the Charity Commission.
ศาลทหาร Military Law: The military court established under the Armed Forces Act 2006 to try the most serious service offences. Comprises a judge advocate and a panel of lay members. Equivalent to the Crown Court.
การดูหมิ่นศาล Media & Entertainment Law: Conduct that interferes with or undermines the administration of justice. Strict liability contempt under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 applies to publications creating a substantial risk of serious prejudice to active proceedings.
Cy-Près Equity & Trusts: An equitable doctrine applied to charitable trusts where the original charitable purpose has become impossible or impracticable. The court directs the funds to a purpose as near as possible to the original (Charities Act 2011, s.67).
คำเตือน Criminal Law: A formal warning given by the police to a person who admits committing a minor criminal offence, as an alternative to prosecution. A caution is recorded and may be disclosed on criminal record checks.
Committal Criminal Law: The transfer of a case from the magistrates' court to the Crown Court for trial or sentence. Also refers to committal proceedings to determine if there is sufficient evidence for trial (largely abolished for indictable-only offences).
Costs Order Evidence & Procedure: An order made by the court requiring one party to pay the legal costs of another. In civil proceedings, the general rule is that costs follow the event (the loser pays the winner's costs). The court has discretion as to the amount and timing of costs.
Cross-Examination Evidence & Procedure: The questioning of a witness by the opposing party's advocate after examination-in-chief. Its purpose is to challenge the witness's evidence, credibility, or reliability. Leading questions are permitted in cross-examination.
Committal Evidence & Procedure: The process of sending a person to prison for contempt of court, or the transfer of proceedings from a magistrates' court to the Crown Court for trial or sentence. Committal for contempt is governed by CPR Part 81.
Causation (Legal) Tort Law: The requirement in both tort and criminal law to establish a causal link between the defendant's act or omission and the harm suffered. Factual causation is determined by the 'but for' test (Barnett v Chelsea & Kensington Hospital [1969]). Legal causation requires the damage not to be too remote — the type of damage must be reasonably foreseeable (The Wagon Mound [1961]).
เจ้าหน้าที่ชันสูตรศพ Coroners & Inquests: An independent judicial office holder responsible for investigating certain deaths. A coroner must investigate where there is reason to suspect the death was violent, unnatural, of unknown cause, or the person died in custody or state detention. Coroners are appointed by local authorities and must be legally or medically qualified (5+ years).
อาชญากรรมทางไซเบอร์ Criminal Law: Criminal offences committed using computers, networks, or the internet. In England & Wales, the principal statute is the Computer Misuse Act 1990, which criminalises unauthorised access to computer material, hacking, malware distribution, and DDoS attacks. Cybercrime also encompasses online fraud (Fraud Act 2006), harassment via electronic communications, and offences under the Online Safety Act 2023.
Commonhold Property Law: A form of freehold ownership of individual units (typically flats) within a multi-unit building, where the common parts are managed by a commonhold association of which all unit-holders are members. Introduced by the Commonhold and Leasehold Reform Act 2002, commonhold is designed as an alternative to leasehold but has seen very limited uptake in practice.
งบประมาณคาร์บอน Environmental Law: A cap on the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions that can be emitted in the UK over a five-year period. Set by the Secretary of State under the Climate Change Act 2008 on the recommendation of the Climate Change Committee. The UK is currently in its Sixth Carbon Budget period (2033-2037).
ศาลสังฆมณฑล Ecclesiastical Law: The bishop's court in each Church of England diocese, presided over by the Chancellor (a senior lawyer). The Consistory Court has jurisdiction over the faculty system (ecclesiastical planning permission) and certain clergy discipline matters.
สัญญาเช่าเรือ Maritime Law: A contract for the hire of a ship (or part of its cargo space) for the carriage of goods or for a period of time. The main types are voyage charterparties (for a specific voyage) and time charterparties (for a specified period). Governed by common law and international conventions.
Chief Coroner Coroners & Inquests: The head of the coroner system in England and Wales, established by the Coroners and Justice Act 2009. The Chief Coroner provides national leadership, issues guidance, and has power to direct investigations in certain cases.
Conditional Fee Agreement (CFA) Evidence & Procedure: A 'no win, no fee' arrangement between a lawyer and client where the lawyer's fee is payable only if the case is successful. The lawyer may charge a 'success fee' (a percentage uplift on normal fees). Regulated by the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 and the Access to Justice Act 1999.
คำสั่งคุ้มครองเด็ก Family Law: An order under s.31 Children Act 1989 placing a child in the care of a local authority. The court must be satisfied that the child is suffering, or is likely to suffer, significant harm attributable to inadequate parental care or the child being beyond parental control.
Cross-Class Cram-Down Insolvency Law: A mechanism under Part 26A Companies Act 2006 (inserted by CIGA 2020) allowing a court to sanction a restructuring plan even if one or more classes of creditor have voted against it, provided at least one 'in the money' class has approved and no dissenting member is worse off than in the relevant alternative.
Constructive Dismissal Employment Law: Where an employer commits a fundamental breach of the employment contract (e.g., unilaterally reducing pay, bullying, changing job role without consent), entitling the employee to resign and claim unfair dismissal. The employee must resign in response to the breach.
Charge (Fixed) Company & Commercial Law: A security interest over specific, identified assets of a company. The chargor cannot deal with the assets without the chargee's consent. Takes priority over a floating charge.
Charge (Floating) Company & Commercial Law: A security interest over a class of assets (present and future) of a company. The chargor can deal with the assets in the ordinary course of business until crystallisation (when the charge becomes fixed). Created over assets like stock-in-trade and book debts.
Compulsory Purchase Land Law: The power of a public authority to acquire land compulsorily for public purposes, subject to compensation at market value. Governed by the Acquisition of Land Act 1981 and the Compulsory Purchase Act 1965. The acquiring authority must demonstrate a compelling case in the public interest.
Clean Hands Equity & Trusts: An equitable maxim: 'he who comes to equity must come with clean hands.' A person seeking an equitable remedy must not themselves have acted unconscionably or inequitably in relation to the matter.
Cy-Pres Equity & Trusts: An equitable doctrine applied to charitable trusts. Where a charitable purpose has failed, the court or Charity Commission may apply the trust property cy-pres ('as near as possible') to a similar charitable purpose, rather than allowing the gift to fail entirely.
การดูหมิ่นศาล Criminal Law: Conduct that interferes with the administration of justice. Criminal contempt includes disobeying court orders and publishing material that creates a substantial risk of serious prejudice to active proceedings (Contempt of Court Act 1981). Civil contempt is breach of a court order.
Common Assault Criminal Law: An offence under s.39 Criminal Justice Act 1988 comprising assault (causing the victim to apprehend immediate unlawful personal violence) and battery (the application of unlawful force). A summary offence with a maximum of 6 months' imprisonment.
คำสั่งบำบัดในชุมชน Mental Health Law: An order under s.17A MHA 1983 (inserted by MHA 2007) allowing a detained patient to be treated in the community subject to conditions. Breach may result in recall to hospital.
Custody Officer Criminal Law: A police officer (at least sergeant rank) responsible for the welfare and rights of persons in police detention under PACE 1984. The custody officer decides whether to authorise detention.
คำเตือน Criminal Law: The formal warning given by police on arrest: 'You do not have to say anything. But it may harm your defence if you do not mention when questioned something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence.'
Confiscation Order Criminal Law: An order made under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 requiring a convicted defendant to pay a sum representing the benefit obtained from criminal conduct.
เขตอนุรักษ์ Planning & Land Use: An area designated by the local planning authority under s.69 Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 as being of special architectural or historic interest, the character of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance.
Controlled Drug Criminal Law: A substance listed in Schedule 2 to the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. Classified into Class A (most harmful — heroin, cocaine, ecstasy), Class B (cannabis, amphetamines), and Class C (anabolic steroids, benzodiazepines).
Child Protection Plan Family Law: A plan drawn up by the local authority following a child protection conference, setting out the steps to be taken to safeguard a child who has been assessed as being at continuing risk of significant harm.
คำสั่งคุ้มครองเด็ก Family Law: An order under s.31 Children Act 1989 placing a child in the care of the local authority. The court must be satisfied the child is suffering or likely to suffer significant harm attributable to parental care.
Cremation Regulations Administrative & Public Law: Regulations requiring medical certification before cremation (two medical certificates or a coroner's certificate) to ensure no crime has been concealed. Governed by the Cremation (England and Wales) Regulations 2008.
Contaminated Land Environmental Law: Land that appears to the local authority to be in such a condition that significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm. Governed by Part IIA EPA 1990.
Collateral Contract Contract Law: A contract that exists alongside the main contract, often arising from a pre-contractual statement that induces the main contract. Can be used to circumvent the parol evidence rule.
Condition Precedent Contract Law: A condition that must be fulfilled before a contractual obligation arises or before a contract comes into existence.
Condition Subsequent Contract Law: A condition which, if fulfilled, brings a contract or contractual obligation to an end.
Constructive Manslaughter Criminal Law: Unlawful act manslaughter: an unlawful killing caused by an act that is (1) unlawful, (2) dangerous (objectively), and (3) a substantial cause of death. No need to prove foresight of death or serious harm.
Charge Land Law: A form of security over property. In land law, a legal charge (mortgage) gives the chargee the right to sell the property if the borrower defaults. In company law, fixed and floating charges secure loans to companies.
Commonhold Land Law: A form of freehold ownership for multi-unit developments introduced by the Commonhold and Leasehold Reform Act 2002. Each unit is freehold, and common areas are managed by a commonhold association.
Constructive Trust Equity & Trusts: A trust imposed by equity where it would be unconscionable for the legal owner to deny another's interest. In land law, commonly arising from common intention plus detrimental reliance (Lloyds Bank v Rosset [1991]).
Company Secretary Company & Commercial Law: An officer of the company responsible for compliance with the Companies Act 2006. Public companies must have a company secretary; private companies may choose not to.
Constructive Dismissal Employment Law: Where an employee resigns in response to a fundamental breach of contract by the employer. The employee may claim unfair dismissal. The employer's breach must be sufficiently serious (Western Excavating v Sharp [1978]).
Costs Assessment Evidence & Procedure: The process by which the court determines the amount of legal costs to be paid by one party to another. Costs may be assessed on a standard basis (proportionate and reasonable) or indemnity basis.
ภาษีกำไรจากการขายทรัพย์สิน Tax Law: A tax on the gain (profit) made when disposing of a chargeable asset. The annual exempt amount (currently £3,000) applies. Rates are 10%/20% (18%/24% for residential property). Governed by the Taxation of Chargeable Gains Act 1992.
ลิขสิทธิ์ Intellectual Property: An automatic right protecting original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works, sound recordings, films, and broadcasts. No registration required. Lasts for the life of the author plus 70 years (CDPA 1988).
Conciliation Evidence & Procedure: A form of ADR where a neutral third party (the conciliator) helps the parties reach a settlement. Similar to mediation but the conciliator may propose solutions. ACAS provides conciliation in employment disputes.
Company Voluntary Arrangement Company & Commercial Law: A binding agreement between a company and its creditors under Part I of the Insolvency Act 1986, supervised by an insolvency practitioner. Allows the company to pay debts over time or at a reduced rate while continuing to trade.
Contaminated Land Environmental Law: Land that is in such a condition, by reason of substances in, on, or under it, that significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm, or pollution of controlled waters is being caused. Regulated under Part IIA Environmental Protection Act 1990.
Change of Use Administrative Law: A material change in the use of land or buildings that constitutes 'development' under s.55 Town and Country Planning Act 1990 and therefore requires planning permission, unless it falls within a permitted change under the Use Classes Order.
Compulsory Purchase Order Administrative Law: An order authorising a public body to acquire land without the owner's consent, for purposes such as infrastructure, regeneration, or housing. The acquiring authority must demonstrate a compelling case in the public interest and pay compensation.
คำสั่งชุมชน Criminal Law: A sentence served in the community rather than custody, with one or more requirements attached (e.g., unpaid work, curfew, drug rehabilitation, supervision). Available for offences not so serious as to require imprisonment (Sentencing Act 2020).
Concurrent Sentence Criminal Law: Where a defendant is convicted of multiple offences, sentences that run at the same time. The total sentence served equals the longest individual sentence. Contrasts with consecutive sentences.
Consecutive Sentence Criminal Law: Where a defendant is convicted of multiple offences, sentences that run one after another. The total sentence served is the sum of the individual sentences. Contrasts with concurrent sentences.
Child Arrangements Order Family Law: An order under s.8 Children Act 1989 (replacing residence and contact orders) that regulates with whom a child is to live, spend time, or otherwise have contact, and when.
Constructive Trust Equity & Trusts: A trust imposed by law (not created by the parties) to prevent unconscionable conduct. Arises in various contexts including breach of fiduciary duty, common intention regarding property ownership, and secret trusts. The trustee holds property for the beneficiary regardless of their intentions.
Cy-Près Equity & Trusts: An equitable doctrine applied to charitable trusts. Where the original charitable purpose has failed or become impossible, the court or Charity Commission may direct the property to be applied to a charitable purpose as near as possible to the original (Charities Act 2011, Part 6).
การรวมหัวกันผูกขาด Competition Law: A secret arrangement between competing businesses to fix prices, share markets, limit production, or rig bids. A criminal offence under Enterprise Act 2002, s.188 (as amended), punishable by up to 5 years' imprisonment.
Concerted Practice Competition Law: A form of coordination between undertakings that falls short of a formal agreement but replaces independent decision-making with practical cooperation. May be inferred from parallel conduct and market contact.
Category 1 Hazard Housing Law: Under the Housing Health and Safety Rating System (HHSRS), a serious hazard in residential property that poses a significant risk to health or safety. Local authorities have a duty to take enforcement action when Category 1 hazards are identified.
Contracted-Out Scheme Pensions: An occupational pension scheme that, before 2016, was contracted out of the State Second Pension (S2P/SERPS). Members received lower National Insurance contributions but gave up some state pension entitlement.
Carer's Allowance Welfare: A benefit under SSCBA 1992, s.70 for people who spend at least 35 hours a week caring for someone receiving certain disability benefits. The main source of income replacement for unpaid carers.
Child Benefit Welfare: A universal benefit payable for each child under 16 (or under 20 if in approved education/training). Subject to the High Income Child Benefit Charge where a parent earns over £60,000.
Claimant Commitment Welfare: A written record under Universal Credit of the requirements a claimant accepts as a condition of receiving benefit, including work search and work availability requirements. Failure to comply may result in sanctions.
Conditionality Welfare: The principle that receipt of working-age benefits is conditional on meeting work-related requirements. UC claimants are placed in conditionality groups determining what they must do to continue receiving payment.
Contribution-Based Benefit Welfare: A benefit that requires a sufficient National Insurance contribution record to qualify, including contributory Jobseeker's Allowance, contributory ESA, and the State Pension.
Council Tax Reduction Welfare: A means-tested reduction in council tax liability administered by local authorities, replacing Council Tax Benefit from 2013. Schemes vary between local authorities.
สัญญาเช่าเรือ Maritime Law: A contract for the hire of a ship or part of a ship for the carriage of goods or other purposes. Types include voyage charters, time charters, and demise (bareboat) charters.
ศาลทหาร Military Law: A judicial court for trying members of the armed services accused of offences against military law. Under the Armed Forces Act 2006, the Court Martial is a permanent standing court with a judge advocate.
วัตถุประสงค์การกุศล Charity Law: One of 13 descriptions of purposes recognised as charitable under section 3 of the Charities Act 2011, including prevention of poverty, advancement of education, religion, health, and environmental protection.
คณะกรรมการการกุศล Charity Law: The independent regulator of charities in England and Wales, responsible for registering charities, ensuring compliance with charity law, and protecting the public interest in charity.
องค์กรการกุศลจดทะเบียน Charity Law: Charitable Incorporated Organisation. A corporate form designed specifically for charities, providing limited liability while being regulated only by the Charity Commission (not Companies House).
หลักการใกล้เคียงที่สุด Charity Law: An equitable doctrine allowing a court or the Charity Commission to apply charitable funds to a purpose as near as possible to the original purpose when the original has become impossible or impractical.
ศาลสังฆมณฑล Ecclesiastical Law: The diocesan court of the Church of England that exercises jurisdiction over church property and the faculty system. Presided over by the chancellor of the diocese.
ภาระซ่อมแซมโบสถ์ Ecclesiastical Law: An ancient obligation on certain landowners (lay rectors) to contribute to the repair of the chancel of a parish church, enforceable by the PCC.
งบประมาณคาร์บอน Energy Law: A cap on the total quantity of greenhouse gas emissions permitted in the UK over a five-year period, set under the Climate Change Act 2008 to achieve the net zero target by 2050.
สัญญาส่วนต่าง Energy Law: A long-term contract between a low-carbon electricity generator and a government-owned company, guaranteeing a fixed price for electricity to incentivise investment in renewable and nuclear energy.
การทุจริตเลือกตั้ง Election Law: A serious election offence under the Representation of the People Act 1983, including bribery, treating, undue influence, and personation. Conviction can result in the election being voided.
คำสั่งบำบัดในชุมชน Mental Health Law: An order under s.17A MHA 1983 allowing a detained patient to be discharged into the community subject to conditions (e.g., taking medication), with the power of recall to hospital if conditions are breached.
คำเตือน Police Powers: The formal warning given by police on arrest or before questioning: 'You do not have to say anything. But it may harm your defence if you do not mention when questioned something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence.'
Custody Record Police Powers: A written record maintained by the custody officer for each person detained at a police station, documenting the grounds for detention, rights given, requests made, meals, medical attention, interviews, and all significant events during detention.
Confiscation Order Fraud & Economic Crime: An order made by the Crown Court under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 requiring a convicted defendant to pay a sum equivalent to their benefit from criminal conduct. The court assesses the defendant's benefit and available amount.
เกณฑ์การจำคุก Sentencing: The statutory requirement (Sentencing Act 2020, s.230) that a court must not pass a custodial sentence unless the offence is so serious that neither a fine alone nor a community sentence can be justified.
คำสั่งชุมชน Sentencing: A sentence imposing one or more community requirements (unpaid work, curfew, programme, mental health treatment, etc.) on an offender aged 18+ whose offence is serious enough to warrant it but not so serious as to require custody.
คำสั่งคุ้มครองเด็ก Childcare & Safeguarding: An order under s.31 Children Act 1989 placing a child in the care of a designated local authority. The local authority acquires parental responsibility and can determine the extent to which parents may exercise theirs. Lasts until the child turns 18 unless discharged earlier.
ความรับผิดของผู้ให้กู้ที่เกี่ยวข้อง Financial Services: Under s.75 Consumer Credit Act 1974, where goods or services (£100–£30,000) are purchased using credit, the creditor is jointly and severally liable with the supplier for breach of contract or misrepresentation.
คำตัดสินเหตุผลขั้นสุดท้าย Modern Slavery: The second and final NRM decision: whether, on the balance of probabilities, the person is a victim of modern slavery. A positive decision entitles the victim to support and a period of discretionary leave.
นักโทษประเภท A Prison & Parole: A prisoner whose escape would be highly dangerous to the public, the police, or the security of the state. Subject to the highest security conditions. Categorisation is reviewed regularly.
ความยินยอมคุกกี้ Cyber & Digital Law: Under the Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations 2003, websites must obtain informed consent before placing non-essential cookies on users' devices. Enforced by the ICO.
เขตอนุรักษ์ Heritage & Listed Buildings: An area of special architectural or historic interest designated by the local planning authority under s.69 of the Listed Buildings Act 1990. Imposes additional controls on demolition, trees, and development.
การจำแนกยาเสพติดควบคุม Drug Regulation Law: Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, drugs are classified A (most harmful: heroin, cocaine, MDMA), B (cannabis, amphetamines), or C (anabolic steroids, benzodiazepines). Classification determines maximum penalties.
ศาลทหาร Military Law: A judicial court for trying members of the armed forces for service offences under the Armed Forces Act 2006. Consists of a judge advocate and a panel of lay members. Appeals go to the Court Martial Appeal Court.
คำสั่งบำบัดในชุมชน Mental Health Law: An order under s.17A MHA 1983 allowing a detained patient to be discharged from hospital subject to conditions, with the power to recall to hospital if conditions are breached.
Custody Officer Police Powers: A police officer (at least sergeant rank) responsible for the welfare and rights of detained persons, including ensuring access to legal advice and reviewing the necessity of continued detention.
เขตอนุรักษ์ Heritage Law: An area of special architectural or historic interest designated by the local planning authority under s.69 of the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990. Additional planning controls apply.
การสอบสวนของเจ้าพนักงานชันสูตร Burial & Cremation Law: A judicial inquiry conducted by a coroner to determine who the deceased was and how, when, and where they came by their death. Required for deaths that are violent, unnatural, of unknown cause, or occurring in custody.
ความประมาทเลินเล่อทางการแพทย์ Medical Law: A breach of duty of care by a medical professional causing injury to a patient. The standard of care is judged by reference to a responsible body of medical opinion (Bolam test), but doctors must also disclose material risks (Montgomery test).
การสอบสวนของ CMA Consumer Protection Law: An investigation by the Competition and Markets Authority into anti-competitive agreements, abuse of dominant position, or mergers that may substantially lessen competition.
ข้อห้ามบทที่ 1 Competition Law: The prohibition under s.2 Competition Act 1998 of agreements between undertakings that have as their object or effect the prevention, restriction, or distortion of competition in the UK.
ภาษีกำไรจากการขายทรัพย์สิน Tax Law: A tax on the profit (gain) when disposing of an asset that has increased in value. Key reliefs include the annual exempt amount, Business Asset Disposal Relief, and principal private residence relief.
Contracts for Difference (CfD) Energy Law: A government scheme to support renewable energy generation. The generator receives a fixed 'strike price' for electricity — if the market price is lower, the government pays the difference; if higher, the generator pays back.
งบประมาณคาร์บอน Energy Law: A cap on the total amount of greenhouse gases the UK can emit over a 5-year period, set under the Climate Change Act 2008. The UK is currently in its sixth carbon budget period.
ศาลสังฆมณฑล Ecclesiastical Law: The court of each Church of England diocese, presided over by the chancellor (a legally qualified judge appointed by the bishop). It exercises the faculty jurisdiction and hears disputes about church property.
ภาระซ่อมแซมโบสถ์ Ecclesiastical Law: An ancient obligation on certain landowners (former lay rectors) to repair the chancel of the parish church. It runs with the land and can be registered as a local land charge. Confirmed in Aston Cantlow PCC v Wallbank [2003].
Confiscation Order Fraud & Economic Crime: A court order under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 requiring a convicted defendant to pay an amount equivalent to the benefit they obtained from criminal conduct. Enforced by the Crown Court.
Caveat (Probate) Wills & Probate: A notice entered at the Probate Registry to prevent a grant of probate from being issued. Used to protect a person's position while investigating the validity of a will. Lasts 6 months and is renewable.
การสมรสตามจารีตประเพณี (ความเข้าใจผิด) Cohabitation Law: A widespread misconception that unmarried couples living together acquire the same legal rights as married couples. English law does not recognise common law marriage — cohabitants have no automatic property, maintenance, or inheritance rights.
ข้อตกลงการอยู่ร่วมกัน Cohabitation Law: A written agreement between unmarried partners setting out arrangements for property, finances, and other matters during and after the relationship. Not automatically binding but carries significant evidential weight.
ทรัสต์โดยนัยจากเจตนาร่วม Cohabitation Law: A trust arising where parties share a common intention that the beneficial ownership of property should differ from the legal ownership, and the claimant has acted to their detriment in reliance on that intention (Lloyds Bank v Rosset [1991]; Jones v Kernott [2011]).

D

ค่าเสียหาย: A monetary remedy awarded by a court to compensate a party for loss or injury suffered as a result of another's breach of duty or contract.
จำเลย: The person against whom a civil claim or criminal prosecution is brought.
หน้าที่ระมัดระวัง Tort Law: A legal obligation to take reasonable care to avoid causing harm to others. Central to the tort of negligence (established in Donoghue v Stevenson [1932]).
Debenture Company & Commercial Law: A document evidencing a debt or acknowledging indebtedness. In company law, debentures are commonly secured by a fixed or floating charge over the company's assets.
Disclosure: The process by which parties to litigation are required to make available documents relevant to the issues in the case, whether or not those documents support their own case.
Duress Contract Law: Pressure amounting to compulsion of the will, rendering a contract voidable. Includes duress to the person, duress to goods, and economic duress (illegitimate pressure applied through economic means).
การเนรเทศ Immigration & Asylum Law: The compulsory removal of a non-British citizen from the UK on the grounds that their presence is not conducive to the public good, or following a criminal conviction with a sentence of 12+ months.
ผู้ควบคุมข้อมูล Data Protection & Privacy Law: The natural or legal person, public authority, agency, or other body which determines the purposes and means of the processing of personal data (UK GDPR, Article 4).
Data Processor Data Protection & Privacy Law: A natural or legal person which processes personal data on behalf of the data controller (UK GDPR, Article 4). Processors must comply with the controller's instructions and have appropriate security measures.
การละเมิดข้อมูล Data Protection & Privacy Law: A breach of security leading to the accidental or unlawful destruction, loss, alteration, unauthorised disclosure of, or access to, personal data. Must be reported to the ICO within 72 hours if likely to result in a risk to individuals' rights.
Deprivation of Liberty Medical & Healthcare Law: The restriction of a person's freedom to such a degree that they are deprived of their liberty within the meaning of Article 5 ECHR. In care settings, Deprivation of Liberty Safeguards (DoLS) provide procedural protections.
De Minimis: Latin: 'about trivial things'. The law does not concern itself with trifling matters (de minimis non curat lex). Used to dismiss claims or breaches that are too minor to warrant judicial attention.
แผนบำนาญแบบกำหนดผลประโยชน์ Pensions Law: A pension scheme that promises a specific pension based on salary and length of service. The employer bears the investment risk. Increasingly rare in the private sector.
Discovery Evidence & Procedure: The former term for disclosure — the process by which parties to litigation reveal relevant documents. Now called 'disclosure' under the Civil Procedure Rules in England and Wales.
Default Judgment Evidence & Procedure: A judgment entered in favour of the claimant when the defendant fails to file an acknowledgment of service or a defence within the required time period. Available under Part 12 of the Civil Procedure Rules.
Disclosure (Civil) Evidence & Procedure: The process by which parties to civil litigation must reveal to each other the documents relevant to the issues in dispute. Standard disclosure under CPR Part 31 requires disclosure of documents on which a party relies, documents that adversely affect their case, or support the other party's case.
Deed Poll Civil Procedure: A legal document by which a person formally changes their name. In England & Wales, there is no legal requirement to change your name by deed poll (you can simply use a new name), but a deed poll provides formal evidence of the change that is accepted by government bodies, banks, and other organisations. A deed poll must be signed by the individual and witnessed by two independent adults. It can be 'enrolled' at the Royal Courts of Justice for an official public record, though this is optional.
Diminished Responsibility Criminal Law: A partial defence to murder under s.2 Homicide Act 1957 (as amended by s.52 Coroners and Justice Act 2009). The defendant must prove on the balance of probabilities that they were suffering from an abnormality of mental functioning arising from a recognised medical condition that substantially impaired their ability to understand conduct, form a rational judgment, or exercise self-control.
Duress by Threats Criminal Law: A defence to all offences except murder and attempted murder. The defendant must show a threat of death or serious physical injury, that a reasonable person of similar characteristics would have responded as the defendant did, and that they had no reasonable opportunity to escape.
Duress of Circumstances Criminal Law: A defence where external circumstances (not a specific threat from a person) compel the defendant to commit an offence. For example, driving while disqualified to escape a violent attack. The same requirements as duress by threats apply. Not available for murder.
Double-Lock Data Protection & Privacy: Under the Investigatory Powers Act 2016, a warrant for interception or equipment interference requires approval from both a Secretary of State (or Scottish Minister) and a Judicial Commissioner (a senior judge). This dual authorisation is the 'double-lock'.
Deprivation of Liberty Safeguards Mental Health Law: Legal safeguards (now being replaced by Liberty Protection Safeguards under MCA 2005 as amended) to protect the rights of people who lack capacity and are deprived of their liberty in care homes or hospitals.
การเลือกปฏิบัติโดยตรง Equality & Discrimination Law: Treating a person less favourably than another because of a protected characteristic (s.13 Equality Act 2010).
Detention Time Limits Criminal Law: Under PACE 1984, a person may be held for up to 24 hours (36 hours for indictable offences with superintendent authorisation, 96 hours with magistrates' warrant). Terrorism suspects may be held up to 14 days.
Deferred Prosecution Agreement Criminal Law: An agreement under Schedule 17 Crime and Courts Act 2013 between a prosecutor and an organisation accused of economic crime, where prosecution is deferred if the organisation meets agreed conditions.
Due Diligence Defence (Food) Consumer Protection: A defence under s.21 Food Safety Act 1990 where the defendant proves they took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid committing the offence.
Drug Scheduling Criminal Law: Under the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001, controlled drugs are placed in Schedules 1-5 determining rules for possession, supply, prescribing, and record-keeping. Schedule 1 (most restricted) to Schedule 5 (least restricted).
คำสั่งบำบัดและตรวจสารเสพติด Criminal Law: A community sentence requiring the offender to undergo treatment for drug dependency and regular testing. Now part of the community order framework under the Criminal Justice Act 2003.
Designated Safeguarding Lead Family Law: The person within an organisation (school, hospital, etc.) with lead responsibility for safeguarding children, including managing referrals and working with social services.
หน้าที่ดูแล (ของเสีย) Environmental Law: The duty under s.34 Environmental Protection Act 1990 on anyone who produces, imports, carries, keeps, treats, or disposes of waste to take all reasonable measures to prevent its escape and ensure it is transferred only to an authorised person.
Diminished Responsibility Criminal Law: A partial defence to murder (s.2 Homicide Act 1957, as amended) reducing the offence to manslaughter. Requires an abnormality of mental functioning arising from a recognised medical condition that substantially impairs the defendant's ability.
Director's Duties Company & Commercial Law: Statutory duties codified in ss.170-177 Companies Act 2006: act within powers, promote success, exercise independent judgment, exercise reasonable care/skill/diligence, avoid conflicts, not accept benefits, declare interests.
Declaration of Incompatibility Human Rights Law: A declaration by a court under s.4 Human Rights Act 1998 that a provision of primary legislation is incompatible with a Convention right. Does not invalidate the legislation but signals the need for Parliament to act.
Derogation Human Rights Law: A state's temporary opt-out from certain Convention rights in time of war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation (Article 15 ECHR). The UK has derogated from Article 5 in the past.
Default Judgment Evidence & Procedure: A judgment entered against a defendant who fails to file an acknowledgement of service or defence within the prescribed time. The claimant applies to the court or court staff for judgment in their favour.
ผู้ควบคุมข้อมูล Data Protection & Privacy: A person or organisation that determines the purposes and means of processing personal data. The data controller bears primary responsibility for compliance with data protection law (UK GDPR, DPA 2018).
Data Processor Data Protection & Privacy: A person or organisation that processes personal data on behalf of the data controller. Must act only on the controller's instructions and implement appropriate security measures.
Data Protection Impact Assessment Data Protection & Privacy: An assessment required under Article 35 UK GDPR where processing is likely to result in a high risk to individuals' rights and freedoms. Must describe the processing, assess necessity, and identify measures to address risks.
Devolution Constitutional Law: The transfer of powers from the UK Parliament to the Scottish Parliament, Senedd Cymru (Welsh Parliament), and Northern Ireland Assembly. Devolved matters vary by nation; the UK Parliament retains sovereignty and power over reserved matters.
คำสั่งเนรเทศ Immigration Law: An order under s.5 Immigration Act 1971 requiring a person to leave the UK and prohibiting re-entry. May be made following a criminal conviction (automatic deportation for sentences of 12+ months under UK Borders Act 2007) or where deportation is conducive to the public good.
Dawn Raid Competition Law: An unannounced investigation at business premises by the CMA or EU Commission to search for evidence of competition law infringements. Obstruction is a criminal offence.
Director Disqualification Competition Law: Under Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986, s.9A-9E, a director of a company involved in competition law breaches may be disqualified for up to 15 years from acting as a company director.
Dominant Position Competition Law: A position of economic strength held by an undertaking enabling it to prevent effective competition by behaving independently of competitors, customers, and consumers. Market share above 50% raises a presumption of dominance.
มาตรฐานที่อยู่อาศัยที่เหมาะสม Housing Law: A government standard requiring social housing to meet minimum criteria: be free from Category 1 hazards, be in reasonable repair, have reasonably modern facilities, and provide reasonable thermal comfort.
Demoted Tenancy Housing Law: A tenancy created when a court orders demotion of a secure or assured tenancy due to anti-social behaviour. The tenant loses security of tenure for a 12-month period and may be evicted more easily if problems persist.
Disrepair Claim Housing Law: A civil claim by a tenant against a landlord for breach of the implied repairing covenant under Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, s.11. Remedies include damages, specific performance, and set-off against rent.
Due Accuracy Broadcasting: The standard required for news broadcasts under the Ofcom Code. News must be reported with due accuracy, meaning accuracy adequate and appropriate to the output, taking account of the nature and context of the content.
Due Impartiality Broadcasting: The requirement under Broadcasting Act 1990 and Ofcom Code that licensed broadcasters present news with due impartiality and maintain due impartiality on matters of political or industrial controversy.
แผนบำนาญแบบกำหนดผลประโยชน์ Pensions: A pension scheme where benefits are calculated by a formula based on salary and length of service (e.g., 1/60th of final salary for each year worked). The employer bears the investment risk.
Defined Contribution Scheme Pensions: A pension scheme where contributions are invested and the final pension depends on investment returns. Also called 'money purchase'. The member bears the investment risk. Includes most workplace and personal pensions.
Disability Living Allowance Welfare: A tax-free benefit for disabled people under 65 with mobility or care needs, being replaced by Personal Independence Payment for working-age claimants. Still claimed by those who qualified before April 2013.
ค่าเสียเวลาเรือ Maritime Law: Liquidated damages payable by a charterer to a shipowner for delay in loading or discharging cargo beyond the agreed laytime period specified in the charterparty.
การละเมิดสารต้องห้าม Sports Law: A breach of anti-doping rules as defined by the World Anti-Doping Code, adopted in the UK by UK Anti-Doping (UKAD). Includes presence of prohibited substances, refusal of testing, and tampering.
หน้าที่ดูแลในกีฬา Sports Law: The legal obligation of sports governing bodies, organisers, and participants to take reasonable care to avoid causing injury to others, established in Watson v BBBC [2001].
การรื้อถอน Energy Law: The process of safely dismantling and removing oil and gas infrastructure (platforms, pipelines) at the end of production. Licensees have statutory obligations under the Petroleum Act 1998.
Deprivation of Liberty Safeguards Mental Health Law: The legal framework (Schedule A1, Mental Capacity Act 2005) for authorising the deprivation of liberty of people lacking capacity in hospitals and care homes. Known as DoLS. Being replaced by Liberty Protection Safeguards.
การเลือกปฏิบัติโดยตรง Equality & Discrimination: Less favourable treatment of a person because of a protected characteristic (s.13 Equality Act 2010). Requires a comparator — someone without the characteristic in the same or similar circumstances.
มาตรฐานที่อยู่อาศัยที่เหมาะสม Social Housing: A standard for social housing that requires homes to be free of serious hazards, in reasonable repair, have reasonably modern facilities, and provide reasonable thermal comfort.
การถอนสัญชาติ Immigration & Nationality: The power of the Secretary of State under s.40 BNA 1981 to deprive a person of British citizenship if conducive to the public good (and it would not render them stateless, with exceptions) or if obtained by fraud, false representation, or concealment.
คำสั่งตัดสิทธิ์ Animal Welfare & Agricultural Law: A court order prohibiting a person convicted of an animal welfare offence from owning, keeping, participating in the keeping of, or being party to an arrangement where they can control or influence animals.
การโจมตีแบบปฏิเสธบริการ Cyber & Digital Law: An attack designed to make a computer system or network unavailable by overwhelming it with traffic. Prosecutable under s.3 Computer Misuse Act 1990 and potentially under the Serious Crime Act 2015.
เอกสิทธิ์ทางการทูต International Law: The immunity of diplomatic agents from the criminal, civil, and administrative jurisdiction of the receiving state, under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961 (given effect by the Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964).
การป้องกันด้วยความระมัดระวัง Food Safety & Standards: Under s.21 Food Safety Act 1990, a person charged with a food safety offence may defend by proving they took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid committing the offence.
คำสั่งบำบัดและตรวจสารเสพติด Drug Regulation Law: A community order requiring an offender to undergo treatment for drug dependency and submit to regular drug testing. Now part of the community order framework under the Sentencing Act 2020.
แผนบำนาญแบบกำหนดผลประโยชน์ Pensions Law: A pension scheme that promises a specific retirement income based on salary and length of service (final salary or career average). The investment risk lies with the employer.
การให้สัญญาโดยตรง Procurement Law: Award of a public contract without a competitive process. Permitted only in limited circumstances defined by the Procurement Act 2023, such as extreme urgency or sole supplier.
Deprivation of Liberty Safeguards Mental Health Law: Legal safeguards (DoLS) requiring authorisation before depriving an incapacitated person of their liberty in a hospital or care home. Introduced following the Bournewood case (HL v UK).
หน้าที่ในการนำเสนออย่างเป็นธรรม Insurance Law: Under the Insurance Act 2015, the insured must make a fair presentation of the risk to the insurer before the contract is entered into, disclosing material circumstances in a reasonably clear and accessible manner.
หน้าที่ดูแล (ของเสีย) Environmental Law: The legal duty under s.34 Environmental Protection Act 1990 on anyone who produces, imports, keeps, stores, transports, treats, or disposes of waste to ensure it is managed properly.
คำสั่งเนรเทศ Immigration Law: An order made by the Home Secretary requiring a foreign national to leave the UK and prohibiting re-entry. May be made following criminal conviction or on grounds of conducive to the public good.
เอกสิทธิ์ทางการทูต International Law: Protection from legal process afforded to diplomatic agents under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961, given domestic effect by the Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964.
Dishonesty (Ivey Test) Fraud & Economic Crime: The objective test for dishonesty established by Ivey v Genting Casinos [2017] UKSC 67: the court ascertains the defendant's actual knowledge/belief as to the facts, then asks whether the conduct was dishonest by the standards of ordinary decent people.
Deposit Protection Landlord & Tenant Law: The legal requirement for landlords to protect tenancy deposits in a government-approved scheme (DPS, MyDeposits, or TDS) within 30 days. Failure prevents service of a section 21 notice and may result in penalties.
ผู้แทนตามคำสั่งศาล Court of Protection: An appointment by the Court of Protection authorising a person (deputy) to make ongoing decisions for someone who lacks mental capacity and has no suitable LPA. Deputies must act in the person's best interests and report to the OPG.
ดีปเฟค AI & Technology Law: AI-generated synthetic media (video, audio, images) depicting a person doing or saying things they never did. Raises legal issues under defamation law, privacy law, the Online Safety Act 2023, and potentially criminal law.
สัญญาทางไกล E-commerce Law: A contract concluded between a trader and consumer under an organised distance sales scheme, without simultaneous physical presence (e.g., online, by phone). Subject to the Consumer Contracts Regulations 2013, including the 14-day right to cancel.
พ.ร.บ. ตลาดดิจิทัล การแข่งขัน และผู้บริโภค 2024 E-commerce Law: Major reform legislation enhancing consumer protection, giving the CMA new powers over digital markets, and introducing a Strategic Market Status designation for powerful tech firms.

E

หลักความเป็นธรรม Equity & Trusts: A body of law developed by the Court of Chancery to supplement and remedy the limitations and inflexibility of the common law. Equitable remedies include injunctions, specific performance, and rescission.
Easement Land Law: A right enjoyed by one landowner (the dominant tenement) over the land of another (the servient tenement), such as a right of way or right of light. Must accommodate the dominant tenement and be capable of forming the subject matter of a grant.
Estoppel Equity & Trusts: A legal principle that prevents a person from going back on a promise or representation, or from denying facts they have previously asserted, where another person has relied on those words or conduct to their detriment.
Ex Parte: Latin: 'from one side'. An application made by one party without notice to the other party. Now called a 'without notice' application in civil proceedings.
ใบอนุญาตสิ่งแวดล้อม Environmental Law: An authorisation required under the Environmental Permitting Regulations 2016 to carry out certain activities that could harm the environment, such as industrial emissions or waste operations.
การประเมินผลกระทบสิ่งแวดล้อม Environmental Law: A process required before certain development projects can proceed, assessing the likely significant environmental effects and identifying mitigation measures.
แผน EHC (การศึกษา สุขภาพ และการดูแล) Education Law: An Education, Health and Care plan under the Children and Families Act 2014, specifying the special educational provision, health provision, and social care provision for a child or young person (0–25) with SEN.
Estoppel Contract Law: A doctrine preventing a person from going back on a promise or representation when the other party has relied on it to their detriment. Main types: promissory estoppel, proprietary estoppel, and estoppel by representation.
Examination-in-Chief Evidence & Procedure: The first questioning of a witness by the party who called them. Leading questions (questions that suggest the answer) are generally not permitted in examination-in-chief.
Exceptional Hardship Road Traffic & Motoring Law: A defence to mandatory disqualification under the totting-up procedure. The driver must prove to the magistrates' court that disqualification would cause exceptional hardship — not merely inconvenience. Hardship to third parties (e.g., employees who would lose their jobs) may be considered. Loss of employment alone is not necessarily exceptional.
แผน EHC (การศึกษา สุขภาพ และการดูแล) Education Law: An Education, Health and Care Plan — a legal document issued by a local authority setting out the special educational provision, health provision, and social care provision required to meet the needs of a child or young person aged 0–25 with special educational needs or disabilities. Introduced by the Children and Families Act 2014, Part 3.
Either-Way Offence Criminal Law: A criminal offence that can be tried in either the magistrates' court or the Crown Court. Examples include theft, burglary, ABH, and criminal damage over £5,000. The decision on venue is made at an 'allocation hearing' in the magistrates' court. The defendant has the right to elect Crown Court trial for either-way offences.
Equitable Interest Property Law: A right in property recognised and enforced by equity rather than common law. Examples include the interest of a beneficiary under a trust, an equitable easement, a restrictive covenant, and an estate contract. Equitable interests may be overridden by a bona fide purchaser for value without notice (the 'equity's darling' rule), though in registered land the Land Registration Act 2002 largely replaces this with the registration framework.
การส่งผู้ร้ายข้ามแดน Criminal Law: The legal process by which one country surrenders a person to another country for prosecution or to serve a sentence. In the UK, extradition is governed by the Extradition Act 2003, which divides requesting territories into Category 1 (European Arrest Warrant countries) and Category 2 (other treaty countries). Bars to extradition include double jeopardy, human rights, and the forum bar.
Exclusion Clause Contract Law: A contractual term that seeks to exclude or limit one party's liability for breach of contract or negligence. Regulated by the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 (B2B) and the Consumer Rights Act 2015 (consumer contracts). Some exclusions are void; others must satisfy a reasonableness or fairness test.
Estoppel by Convention Equity & Trusts: Where both parties to a transaction have acted on a shared assumption of fact or law, neither can deny that assumption if it would be unjust to allow them to go back on it.
Easement by Prescription Land Law: An easement acquired by long use — typically 20 years of continuous, uninterrupted use as of right (without force, secrecy, or permission). Governed by the Prescription Act 1832.
Equitable Charge Land Law: A security interest created in equity over property, without transferring legal title. Common in land transactions where formalities for a legal mortgage are not met. Enforceable as an equitable interest.
Electronic Communications Network Cyber & Technology Law: A transmission system for conveying signals by electrical, electromagnetic, or electro-optical means, as defined by the Communications Act 2003. Includes fixed, mobile, and broadcast networks.
คำสั่งคุ้มครองฉุกเฉิน Family Law: An order under s.44 Children Act 1989 authorising the removal of a child to a place of safety for up to 8 days (extendable by 7 days) where there is reasonable cause to believe the child would suffer significant harm.
ใบอนุญาตขุดศพ Criminal Law: A licence required from the Ministry of Justice (under s.25 Burial Act 1857) before human remains can be exhumed from any burial ground. Exhumation without a licence is a criminal offence.
ใบอนุญาตสิ่งแวดล้อม Environmental Law: A permit required under the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016 for activities that could pollute the environment, such as waste operations, industrial emissions, and water discharges.
Entire Obligation Contract Law: A contractual obligation that must be completely performed before payment is due. If the obligation is not fully performed, no payment is owed (Cutter v Powell [1795]), subject to the doctrine of substantial performance.
Egg-Shell Skull Rule Tort Law: The principle that a tortfeasor must take the victim as they find them. If the victim has a pre-existing vulnerability that makes the injury worse, the tortfeasor is liable for the full extent of the injury (Smith v Leech Brain [1962]).
Ex Turpi Causa Tort Law: The defence of illegality: a claim may be barred where the claimant's own illegal conduct is inextricably linked with the harm suffered (Patel v Mirza [2016]).
Enfranchisement Land Law: The right of a leaseholder to purchase the freehold (or an extended lease) of their property. Governed by the Leasehold Reform Act 1967 (houses) and LRHUDA 1993 (flats).
Expert Witness Evidence & Procedure: A person with specialist knowledge who gives opinion evidence to assist the court. The expert's duty is to the court, not the party instructing them (CPR Part 35).
Entrepreneurs' Relief Tax Law: Now called Business Asset Disposal Relief (BADR). A reduced CGT rate (10%) on qualifying business disposals up to a lifetime limit (currently £1 million).
Early Neutral Evaluation Evidence & Procedure: An ADR process where a neutral evaluator (often a judge or experienced practitioner) gives a non-binding assessment of the merits of the dispute to help the parties reach a settlement.
การประเมินผลกระทบสิ่งแวดล้อม Environmental Law: A process required for certain development projects under the Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations, assessing the likely significant environmental effects of a proposed development before planning permission is granted.
ใบอนุญาตสิ่งแวดล้อม Environmental Law: A permit required under the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016 for carrying out regulated activities, including operating industrial installations, waste operations, water discharge, and groundwater activities.
Employment and Support Allowance Welfare: A benefit for people with limited capability for work due to illness or disability. Claimants undergo Work Capability Assessment. Income-related ESA is being replaced by Universal Credit.
ทะเบียนผู้มีสิทธิเลือกตั้ง Election Law: The official list of people registered to vote in elections. Maintained by Electoral Registration Officers in each local authority area under the Representation of the People Act 1983.
คำร้องเลือกตั้ง Election Law: A legal challenge to the result of an election, heard by an Election Court. Grounds include corrupt or illegal practices, and the court may declare the election void.
คณะกรรมการการเลือกตั้ง Election Law: An independent body established by PPERA 2000 to oversee elections, regulate political party finances, set standards for electoral administration, and report on elections.
คำสั่งคุ้มครองฉุกเฉิน Childcare & Safeguarding: An order under s.44 Children Act 1989 authorising the removal of a child, or the prevention of removal, where there is reasonable cause to believe the child is likely to suffer significant harm. Lasts up to 8 days, extendable by 7 days.
ELMS (การจัดการที่ดินเพื่อสิ่งแวดล้อม) Animal Welfare & Agricultural Law: Environmental Land Management Schemes — the post-Brexit replacement for EU agricultural subsidies, paying farmers for environmental public goods (wildlife habitats, water quality, carbon sequestration) under the Agriculture Act 2020.
สถานการณ์พิเศษ Aviation & Transport Law: Under retained EU Regulation 261/2004, events outside the airline's actual control (e.g., extreme weather, political instability, hidden manufacturing defects) that exempt the airline from paying compensation for delays or cancellations.
หมายจับยุโรป Extradition & Mutual Legal Assistance: A judicial decision issued by a Member State for the arrest and surrender of a requested person. Part 1 of the Extradition Act 2003 implements the EAW framework (post-Brexit, replaced by the Trade and Cooperation Agreement surrender provisions).
ประมวลกฎหมายสื่อสารอิเล็กทรอนิกส์ Telecommunications Law: Schedule 3A Communications Act 2003, granting Code operators rights to install, maintain, and upgrade electronic communications apparatus on public and private land, subject to conditions.
แผน EHC (การศึกษา สุขภาพ และการดูแล) Education Law: An Education, Health and Care plan — a legal document setting out a child or young person's special educational needs and the provision required to meet them, issued by the local authority under the Children and Families Act 2014.
การศึกษาที่บ้านโดยสมัครใจ Education Law: Education provided by parents at home instead of at school. Parents must ensure children receive efficient, full-time education suitable to their age, ability, and aptitude (Education Act 1996, s.7).
หมายจับยุโรป Extradition Law: A judicial order issued by an EU member state for the arrest and surrender of a person for prosecution or to serve a sentence. Post-Brexit, the UK uses the UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement.
ใบอนุญาตขุดศพ Burial & Cremation Law: A licence issued by the Ministry of Justice under s.25 Burial Act 1857 authorising the removal of a body from its burial place. Required for any exhumation of human remains.
ใบอนุญาตทางศาสนจักร Burial & Cremation Law: Permission from the ecclesiastical court (the consistory court of the diocese) required for exhumation from or works to a Church of England burial ground or churchyard.
ใบอนุญาตสิ่งแวดล้อม Environmental Law: A permit required from the Environment Agency for activities that may pollute the environment, including waste operations, industrial installations, and water discharges.
การประเมินผลกระทบสิ่งแวดล้อม Environmental Law: A process required for certain developments under the EIA Regulations 2017. The developer must assess and report the likely significant environmental effects of the proposed development.
ทะเบียนผู้มีสิทธิเลือกตั้ง Election & Political Law: The official list of people eligible to vote in elections. Maintained by Electoral Registration Officers in each local authority area. Individual registration replaced household registration in 2014.
คำร้องเลือกตั้ง Election & Political Law: A legal challenge to the result of an election, heard by the Election Court (two High Court judges). Grounds include corrupt practices, illegal practices, and procedural irregularities.
สถานการณ์พิเศษ Aviation & Transport Law: Events outside an airline's control that exempt it from paying compensation under retained EU Regulation 261/2004. Includes extreme weather and security risks. Technical faults are generally NOT extraordinary circumstances (Huzar v Jet2 [2014]).
Energy Price Cap Energy Law: The maximum amount energy suppliers can charge domestic customers on standard variable tariffs, set quarterly by Ofgem. Covers unit rates and standing charges.

F

Fiduciary Equity & Trusts: A person who holds a position of trust and confidence in relation to another, such as a trustee, company director, solicitor, or agent. Fiduciaries owe duties of loyalty, good faith, and the avoidance of conflicts of interest.
กรรมสิทธิ์เด็ดขาด Land Law: An estate in land of potentially infinite duration (fee simple absolute in possession). The most complete form of land ownership in English law. Distinguished from leasehold, which is for a fixed term.
Frustration Contract Law: A doctrine discharging a contract where a supervening event, not caused by either party, renders performance impossible, illegal, or radically different from what was contemplated (Taylor v Caldwell [1863]; Davis Contractors v Fareham UDC [1956]).
การใช้โดยชอบธรรม Intellectual Property: A defence to copyright infringement permitting limited use of copyright material for specified purposes: research, private study, criticism, review, quotation, news reporting, and parody (CDPA 1988, ss.29–30A).
Financial Promotion Banking & Finance Law: A communication that is an invitation or inducement to engage in investment activity. Restricted under s.21 FSMA 2000 to communications made or approved by authorised persons.
ศาลที่ไม่สะดวก Conflict of Laws: The doctrine by which a court may stay proceedings on the ground that another court is a more appropriate forum for the trial of the action (Spiliada Maritime Corp v Cansulex [1987]).
Fiduciary Duty Equity & Trusts: A duty of loyalty, good faith, and avoidance of conflict of interest owed by one person (fiduciary) to another. Fiduciary relationships include trustee–beneficiary, director–company, solicitor–client, and agent–principal.
Force Majeure Contract Law: A contractual clause excusing one or both parties from performance when extraordinary events beyond their control (war, natural disaster, pandemic) prevent fulfilment. Not a standalone legal doctrine in English law — depends entirely on the contract wording.
คำสั่งอายัดทรัพย์ Evidence & Procedure: An interim injunction (formerly called a Mareva injunction) preventing a party from disposing of or dealing with their assets. Typically granted to prevent a defendant from dissipating assets before judgment. Granted without notice (ex parte) in cases of urgency.
ภาระผูกพันลอยตัว Company & Commercial Law: A security interest over a class of assets (present and future) that does not attach to specific assets until crystallisation (e.g., on default or appointment of a receiver). Before crystallisation, the company can deal with the assets in the ordinary course of business. On crystallisation, the floating charge becomes a fixed charge over the assets then held.
Fixed Charge Company & Commercial Law: A security interest that attaches to a specific, identified asset (such as land, machinery, or specific book debts). The chargor cannot deal with the asset without the chargee's consent. Fixed charges take priority over floating charges in insolvency.
Frustration Contract Law: A doctrine of contract law whereby a contract is automatically discharged when a supervening event, without the fault of either party, renders the contractual obligation impossible, illegal, or radically different from what was contemplated. Established in Taylor v Caldwell (1863) and refined in Davis Contractors v Fareham UDC [1956]. The Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943 governs the adjustment of payments made before frustration.
ใบอนุญาตโบสถ์ Ecclesiastical Law: Permission granted by the Consistory Court of a Church of England diocese for alterations to a church building, its contents, or churchyard. The faculty jurisdiction is the ecclesiastical equivalent of planning permission and applies to all Church of England churches, whether listed or not.
คำสั่งห้ามเข้าสนามฟุตบอล Sports Law: A civil order under the Football Spectators Act 1989 (as amended) prohibiting a person from attending regulated football matches for between 3 and 10 years. Can be imposed by a court on conviction for a football-related offence or on application by the police.
Following Equity & Trusts: The process of pursuing the same asset as it moves from hand to hand (as distinct from tracing, which follows value through substitutions). A proprietary remedy available at common law and in equity.
อุปสรรคเขตอำนาจศาล Criminal Law: A provision in the Extradition Act 2003 (s.19B) allowing a court to refuse extradition if a substantial measure of the criminal conduct occurred in the UK and it would not be in the interests of justice to extradite.
Fraud by False Representation Criminal Law: An offence under s.2 Fraud Act 2006 committed by dishonestly making a false representation, knowing it is or might be untrue or misleading, with intent to make a gain or cause loss.
Fraud by Failing to Disclose Criminal Law: An offence under s.3 Fraud Act 2006 committed by dishonestly failing to disclose information that there is a legal duty to disclose, with intent to make a gain or cause loss.
Fraud by Abuse of Position Criminal Law: An offence under s.4 Fraud Act 2006 committed by a person who occupies a position of trust and dishonestly abuses that position, with intent to make a gain or cause loss.
Food Safety Requirements Consumer Protection: Under s.8 Food Safety Act 1990, food fails food safety requirements if it has been rendered injurious to health, is unfit for human consumption, or is so contaminated that it would not be reasonable to expect it to be used for human consumption.
Food Hygiene Rating Consumer Protection: A rating (0-5) given by local authorities following inspections under food hygiene regulations. In Wales, display is mandatory; in England, it is voluntary but widely displayed.
Fly-Tipping Environmental Law: The illegal deposit of waste on land contrary to s.33 Environmental Protection Act 1990. An offence carrying unlimited fines and up to 5 years' imprisonment.
Fee Simple Land Law: The largest estate in land — fee simple absolute in possession. Equivalent to full ownership. The holder can dispose of it freely and it passes on death.
Forfeiture Land Law: The landlord's right to terminate a lease for breach of covenant. In residential leases, s.146 Law of Property Act 1925 requires a notice and the tenant may apply for relief from forfeiture.
ภาระผูกพันลอยตัว Company & Commercial Law: A charge over a class of assets (e.g., stock, book debts) that allows the company to deal with the assets in the ordinary course of business until the charge crystallises (becomes fixed) on a specified event.
Freezing Injunction Evidence & Procedure: An interim order preventing a party from disposing of or dealing with their assets, to preserve them for the purposes of satisfying any future judgment. Formerly known as a Mareva injunction.
การใช้โดยชอบธรรม Intellectual Property: A permitted act under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 allowing limited use of copyright material without the owner's permission for purposes such as research, private study, criticism, review, and reporting current events.
ภาระผูกพันลอยตัว Company & Commercial Law: A security interest over a class of assets (e.g., stock, book debts) that 'floats' over the assets until crystallisation, allowing the company to deal with them in the ordinary course of business. On crystallisation (e.g., default, insolvency), it attaches to specific assets.
Fixed Charge Company & Commercial Law: A security interest attached to a specific, identified asset (e.g., land, machinery). The chargor cannot deal with the asset without the chargee's consent. Takes priority over floating charges in insolvency.
Fairness and Privacy Broadcasting: Sections 7 and 8 of the Ofcom Code requiring broadcasters to avoid unjust or unfair treatment of individuals in programmes and unwarranted infringement of privacy in both the making and broadcast of programmes.
Flexible Drawdown Pensions: Under Pension Schemes Act 2015, the ability for those aged 55+ to access their defined contribution pension flexibly — taking any amount as cash, buying an annuity, or drawing income while funds remain invested.
Funding Deficit Pensions: In a defined benefit scheme, the shortfall between the scheme's assets and its liabilities (the present value of promised benefits). Scheme trustees must agree a recovery plan with the employer.
ใบอนุญาตโบสถ์ Ecclesiastical Law: A licence granted by the consistory court of a diocese authorising works or alterations to a church building, churchyard, or church furnishings within the Church of England.
Fraud by False Representation Fraud & Economic Crime: An offence under s.2 Fraud Act 2006 committed by dishonestly making a false representation (one that is untrue or misleading) with the intention of making a gain or causing a loss. Maximum sentence: 10 years' imprisonment.
ใบอนุญาต FCA Financial Services: Permission granted by the Financial Conduct Authority to carry on regulated activities. Without authorisation (or exemption), carrying on a regulated activity is a criminal offence under s.23 FSMA 2000.
สำนักงานผู้ตรวจการแผ่นดินทางการเงิน Financial Services: The statutory alternative dispute resolution scheme for complaints by consumers against financial services firms. Can make awards up to £430,000 (from April 2024). Decisions are binding on the firm if accepted by the consumer.
ศาลที่ไม่สะดวก Conflict of Laws: The doctrine that a court may stay proceedings if another forum is clearly more appropriate for the trial of the action (Spiliada Maritime Corp v Cansulex [1987]).
ภาระผูกพันลอยตัว Insolvency & Restructuring Law: A charge over a class of assets (present and future) that 'floats' until crystallisation, allowing the chargor to deal with the assets in the ordinary course of business until then.
อุปสรรคเขตอำนาจศาล Extradition & Mutual Legal Assistance: Under s.19B Extradition Act 2003, a bar to extradition where a substantial measure of the relevant activity was performed in the UK and it is not in the interests of justice to extradite.
คำสั่งห้ามเข้าสนามฟุตบอล Sports Law: A court order under the Football Spectators Act 1989 prohibiting a person from attending football matches and requiring surrender of passport during control periods.
อุปสรรคเขตอำนาจศาล Extradition Law: A bar to extradition under s.19B Extradition Act 2003 where a substantial measure of the conduct occurred in the UK and it would not be in the interests of justice to extradite.
การใช้โดยชอบธรรม Intellectual Property Law: Permitted acts under copyright law allowing use of copyright works without infringement for purposes including research, private study, criticism, review, and reporting current events (CDPA 1988, ss.29-30).
ใบอนุญาต FCA Banking & Finance Law: The requirement that any firm carrying on regulated financial activities in the UK must be authorised by the Financial Conduct Authority or be exempt (s.19 FSMA 2000). Operating without authorisation is a criminal offence.
สำนักงานผู้ตรวจการแผ่นดินทางการเงิน Banking & Finance Law: An independent body that resolves disputes between consumers and financial services firms. Can award up to £415,000 compensation. Decisions are binding on the firm if accepted by the complainant.
ใบอนุญาตโบสถ์ Ecclesiastical Law: Permission from the Consistory Court (the diocesan court of the Church of England) to carry out works to a church or churchyard. Almost all changes to church buildings and their contents require a faculty.
Failing to Prevent Bribery Fraud & Economic Crime: A corporate offence under s.7 Bribery Act 2010 — a company is guilty if a person associated with it bribes another to obtain or retain business, unless the company had adequate procedures in place to prevent bribery.
เทคโนโลยีจดจำใบหน้า AI & Technology Law: Biometric technology identifying individuals from facial features. Its use by police and private organisations is subject to data protection law, human rights law, and the Equality Act 2010. R (Bridges) v South Wales Police [2020] established legal framework.
ความเหมาะสมในการประกอบวิชาชีพ Professional Discipline: The standard assessed in regulatory proceedings to determine whether a professional is suitable to continue practising safely and effectively. Impairment may result from misconduct, deficient performance, adverse health, or criminal conviction.

G

ความสามารถกิลลิค Medical & Healthcare Law: The principle that a child under 16 can consent to medical treatment without parental consent if they have sufficient understanding and intelligence to fully understand the proposed treatment (Gillick v West Norfolk AHA [1986]).
Green Belt Planning & Land Use Law: Areas of land designated in Local Plans where development is restricted to prevent urban sprawl. Very special circumstances must be demonstrated to justify inappropriate development in the Green Belt.
Guarantor Contract Law: A person who promises to pay a debt or perform an obligation if the primary debtor defaults. A guarantee must be in writing and signed to be enforceable (Statute of Frauds 1677, s.4).
Garnishee Order Evidence & Procedure: A former term for a third party debt order. A court order requiring a third party (e.g., a bank) who owes money to the judgment debtor to pay it directly to the judgment creditor instead.
หนังสือรับรองพินัยกรรม Wills, Probate & Succession: A court document issued by the Probate Registry confirming the authority of an executor named in a will to administer the deceased's estate. The executor must apply for the grant before they can collect and distribute assets.
Ground Rent Property Law: A periodic payment made by a leaseholder to the freeholder under the terms of the lease. For new long residential leases granted from 30 June 2022, the Leasehold Reform (Ground Rent) Act 2022 restricts ground rent to a peppercorn (zero financial value). Existing leases are unaffected. Historically, some ground rent clauses included escalation provisions that could make the rent unaffordable over time.
GAMSTOP Gambling & Betting Law: The national online self-exclusion scheme for gambling in Great Britain. Consumers who register with GAMSTOP are blocked from gambling with all online gambling operators licensed by the Gambling Commission. Gambling operators are required to participate in GAMSTOP as a condition of their operating licence.
Guarantee Contract Law: A secondary obligation to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another person. A guarantee must be evidenced in writing (Statute of Frauds 1677, s.4). The guarantor's liability depends on the principal debtor's default.
GBH (Grievous Bodily Harm) Criminal Law: Really serious bodily harm. Under s.20 OAPA 1861 (malicious wounding/inflicting GBH — maximum 5 years) and s.18 (wounding/causing GBH with intent — maximum life imprisonment). Intent distinguishes the two offences.
อำนาจทั่วไป Local Government: A power conferred on eligible local authorities by the Localism Act 2011 (s.1) to do anything that an individual generally may do, subject to statutory limitations. Replaced the ultra vires rule for qualifying councils.
สายทอง (บันทึกดิจิทัล) Criminal Law: In building safety law (BSA 2022): a digital record of building safety information maintained throughout a higher-risk building's lifecycle. In criminal law: Woolmington v DPP [1935] — the prosecution must prove guilt beyond reasonable doubt (the 'golden thread' running through English criminal law).
Gross Negligence Manslaughter Criminal Law: An unlawful killing caused by the defendant's grossly negligent breach of a duty of care. The negligence must be so bad as to amount to a criminal act (R v Adomako [1995]).
ความสามารถกิลลิค Family Law: The principle (from Gillick v West Norfolk [1986]) that a child under 16 who has sufficient understanding and intelligence to fully understand what is proposed has the legal capacity to consent to medical treatment without parental consent.
Ground for Possession Housing Law: A statutory reason upon which a landlord may seek to recover possession of a rented property. Grounds may be mandatory (court must grant possession if proved) or discretionary (court may grant if reasonable).
Guaranteed Minimum Pension Pensions: The minimum pension that contracted-out defined benefit schemes must provide to replace the State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme (SERPS). Applies to contracted-out service between 1978 and 1997.
ความเสียหายร่วม Maritime Law: A principle of maritime law where all parties to a sea voyage proportionally share losses resulting from a voluntary sacrifice of cargo or expenditure to save the vessel and remaining cargo from peril.
สมัชชาใหญ่ Ecclesiastical Law: The legislative body of the Church of England, comprising the House of Bishops, House of Clergy, and House of Laity. It has power to pass Measures having the force of Acts of Parliament.
ความสามารถกิลลิค Childcare & Safeguarding: The legal test (from Gillick v West Norfolk [1986]) for determining whether a child under 16 has sufficient understanding and intelligence to consent to medical treatment or exercise other rights without parental consent.
กระบวนการประตู Building Safety: The three-stage building control process for higher-risk buildings under the Building Safety Act 2022: Gateway 1 (planning), Gateway 2 (before construction), and Gateway 3 (before occupation).
สายทอง (บันทึกดิจิทัล) Building Safety: The concept under the Building Safety Act 2022 requiring accurate, up-to-date digital records of building information throughout a higher-risk building's lifecycle, enabling proper safety management.
หนังสือรับรองพินัยกรรม Wills, Probate & Succession: The court order confirming the executor's authority to administer the deceased's estate according to the will. Applied for at the Probate Registry.
อำนาจทั่วไป Local Government Law: Under s.1 Localism Act 2011, eligible local authorities have the power to do anything that individuals may generally do, subject to statutory limitations. Replaced reliance on s.111 LGA 1972.
อำนาจทั่วไป Local Government Law: A power under s.1 Localism Act 2011 allowing eligible local authorities to do anything that individuals generally may do, unless specifically prohibited by statute.
ความสามารถกิลลิค Medical Law: The legal principle that a child under 16 can consent to medical treatment if they have sufficient understanding and intelligence to fully understand what is proposed (Gillick v West Norfolk AHA [1986]).
กฎทั่วไปต่อต้านการหลีกเลี่ยงภาษี Tax Law: The General Anti-Abuse Rule (Finance Act 2013, Part 5) — enables HMRC to counteract tax arrangements that are abusive, i.e., arrangements that cannot reasonably be regarded as a reasonable course of action.
GAMSTOP Gambling & Betting Law: The UK's national self-exclusion scheme for online gambling. Allows individuals to block themselves from all licensed online gambling sites for a minimum period of 6 months, 1 year, or 5 years.
หนังสือรับรองพินัยกรรม Wills & Probate: A court order issued by the Probate Registry authorising the executor named in a will to administer the deceased's estate — collect assets, pay debts, and distribute the remainder to beneficiaries.
AI เชิงสร้างสรรค์ AI & Technology Law: AI systems that create new content (text, images, code, music) based on training data. Raises issues of copyright ownership (s.9(3) CDPA 1988), liability for defamatory or infringing output, and data protection compliance.

H

Habeas Corpus: Latin: 'you may have the body'. A prerogative writ requiring a person who is detaining another to bring the detainee before the court to justify the detention. A fundamental safeguard of personal liberty.
Hearsay Evidence & Procedure: A statement made out of court that is adduced as evidence to prove the truth of its contents. In criminal proceedings, hearsay is generally inadmissible unless it falls within a statutory exception (Criminal Justice Act 2003, Part 11, Chapter 2).
อาคารเสี่ยงสูง Construction Law: As defined by the Building Safety Act 2022, a building that is at least 18 metres in height or has at least 7 storeys, and contains at least 2 residential units. Higher-risk buildings are subject to the enhanced regulatory regime overseen by the Building Safety Regulator, including requirements for an Accountable Person, a safety case report, and a mandatory residents' engagement strategy.
Harassment (Equality) Equality & Discrimination Law: Unwanted conduct related to a protected characteristic that violates a person's dignity or creates an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating, or offensive environment (s.26 EA 2010).
Honest Opinion Tort Law: A defence under s.3 Defamation Act 2013 replacing the old 'fair comment' defence. The statement must be one of opinion (not fact), indicate the basis of the opinion, and an honest person could have held the opinion.
Homelessness Duty Housing Law: The duty under Part VII Housing Act 1996 (as amended by Homelessness Reduction Act 2017) on local authorities to assist homeless persons, including duties to prevent and relieve homelessness.
Horizontal Agreement Competition Law: An agreement between undertakings operating at the same level of the supply chain (i.e., competitors). Includes price-fixing, market-sharing, and output limitation — among the most serious competition infringements.
HHSRS Housing Law: Housing Health and Safety Rating System — a risk-based assessment method under Housing Act 2004 for evaluating 29 potential hazards in residential properties. Replaced the old housing fitness standard.
House in Multiple Occupation Housing Law: A property occupied by three or more people forming two or more households, sharing facilities. HMOs are subject to additional regulation including mandatory licensing for larger properties and enhanced management standards.
Harmful Content Broadcasting: Material that may cause harm to viewers/listeners, including content encouraging crime, disorder, or dangerous behaviour. Broadcasters must ensure such material is appropriately scheduled or excluded.
Housing Benefit Welfare: A means-tested benefit to help with rent payments, being replaced by the housing element of Universal Credit for new claims. Still claimed by pensioners and some existing claimants.
Honest Opinion Defamation & Privacy: A defence under s.3 Defamation Act 2013 (replacing fair comment). The statement must be an opinion, indicate the basis of the opinion, and be one that an honest person could have held on the basis of any fact existing at the time.
อาคารเสี่ยงสูง Building Safety: Under the Building Safety Act 2022, a building that is at least 18 metres in height or has at least 7 storeys and contains at least two residential units. Subject to the most stringent regulatory requirements.
HACCP (การวิเคราะห์อันตราย) Food Safety & Standards: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points — a systematic approach to food safety management required by EU-retained Regulation 852/2004. All food businesses must implement HACCP-based procedures.

I

คำสั่งศาล: A court order requiring a party to do or refrain from doing a specific act. An equitable remedy granted at the court's discretion.
Indictment Criminal Law: A formal written accusation of a crime, used in the Crown Court. An offence 'on indictment' is a serious offence tried before a judge and jury.
การล้มละลาย Company & Commercial Law: The state of being unable to pay debts as they fall due (cash-flow insolvency) or having liabilities exceeding assets (balance-sheet insolvency). Governed by the Insolvency Act 1986.
Infringement Intellectual Property: The unauthorised use of an intellectual property right (patent, trade mark, copyright, or design) in a way that violates the rights holder's exclusive rights.
Inter Alia: Latin: 'among other things'. Used in legal writing to indicate that a list of items is not exhaustive.
ส่วนได้เสียที่สามารถเอาประกันได้ Insurance Law: A legally recognised relationship between the insured and the subject matter of insurance, such that the insured would suffer financial loss if the insured event occurs.
Indemnity Contract Law: A contractual obligation by one party to compensate another for loss or damage. Unlike damages, an indemnity covers the actual loss incurred and may extend to third-party claims.
In Camera Evidence & Procedure: Latin: 'in the chamber'. Proceedings heard in private, excluding the public and press. Now more commonly referred to as 'in private'. Used in cases involving national security, children, or sensitive evidence.
Interlocutory Evidence & Procedure: Relating to interim or procedural steps taken during proceedings, before the final hearing. An interlocutory injunction (now 'interim injunction') is a temporary order preserving the status quo pending trial.
Interim Injunction Evidence & Procedure: A temporary court order restraining a party from doing something (or requiring them to do something) pending the final determination of the case. The test is set out in American Cyanamid v Ethicon [1975]: is there a serious question to be tried, and does the balance of convenience favour granting the injunction?
Innominate Term Contract Law: A contractual term that is neither a condition nor a warranty but can be either depending on the consequences of breach. If the breach deprives the innocent party of substantially the whole benefit of the contract, it may be treated as a breach of condition (entitling termination). If the breach is minor, it is treated as a breach of warranty (damages only). Established in Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha [1962].
Indictable Offence Criminal Law: A criminal offence that can be tried in the Crown Court before a judge and jury. The most serious criminal offences (murder, manslaughter, rape, robbery) are 'indictable only' and must be tried in the Crown Court. Other indictable offences are 'either-way' and may be tried in either the magistrates' court or the Crown Court.
การตายโดยไม่มีพินัยกรรม Wills, Probate & Succession: Dying without a valid will. Where a person dies intestate, their estate is distributed according to the statutory rules in the Administration of Estates Act 1925, which prioritise the surviving spouse/civil partner and close relatives. Unmarried partners receive nothing under the intestacy rules.
การไต่สวนการตาย Coroners & Inquests: A public, fact-finding inquiry conducted by a coroner (sometimes with a jury) to determine who died, when, where, and how. An inquest is not a trial — it does not determine criminal or civil liability. In cases engaging Article 2 ECHR, the inquest may examine the broader circumstances of the death.
ผู้มีส่วนได้เสีย Coroners & Inquests: A person who has a proper interest in an inquest and is therefore entitled to participate — including examining witnesses, receiving disclosure, and making submissions. Interested persons include the immediate family of the deceased, any person whose actions may have caused or contributed to the death, and relevant public bodies.
Internet Connection Records (ICR) Cyber & Technology Law: Records of websites and online services accessed by a user, required to be retained by internet service providers for 12 months under the Investigatory Powers Act 2016. ICRs show which services were accessed but not specific pages visited or content viewed.
ความยินยอมที่ได้รับแจ้ง Medical Law: The principle that a patient must be given sufficient information about material risks and alternatives before consenting to medical treatment. Following Montgomery v Lanarkshire [2015], the test is whether a reasonable person in the patient's position would attach significance to the risk.
Intra Vires Administrative & Public Law: Within the powers. An act that is within the legal authority of the body performing it. The opposite of ultra vires.
Indemnity Contract Law: A promise to hold another person harmless against loss or damage. An indemnity is a primary obligation (not dependent on the principal debtor's default), distinguishing it from a guarantee.
Infanticide Criminal Law: A partial defence and standalone offence under the Infanticide Act 1938. Where a woman causes the death of her child under 12 months old while the balance of her mind is disturbed by reason of not having fully recovered from the effects of giving birth, she is guilty of infanticide (equivalent to manslaughter) rather than murder.
Intoxication (Voluntary) Criminal Law: Voluntary intoxication is not a defence to basic intent offences (DPP v Majewski [1977]) but may be relevant to specific intent offences if it prevented the defendant from forming the required intent (e.g., murder, theft, s.18 GBH).
Intoxication (Involuntary) Criminal Law: Involuntary intoxication (e.g., spiked drink) is a defence to all offences if it prevented the defendant from forming the required mens rea. If the defendant still formed the intent despite the intoxication, they remain liable (R v Kingston [1995]).
Independent Mental Health Advocate Mental Health Law: A person who provides support and advocacy to patients detained under the MHA 1983. IMHAs help patients understand their rights and participate in decisions about their care.
การเลือกปฏิบัติโดยอ้อม Equality & Discrimination Law: Applying a provision, criterion, or practice that is neutral on its face but puts persons sharing a protected characteristic at a particular disadvantage, and which cannot be objectively justified (s.19 EA 2010).
Innominate Term Contract Law: A contractual term that is neither a condition nor a warranty. The consequences of breach depend on the nature and seriousness of the breach (Hong Kong Fir Shipping v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha [1962]).
Intoxication Criminal Law: Voluntary intoxication is no defence to crimes of basic intent (DPP v Majewski [1977]) but may negate the mens rea for crimes of specific intent. Involuntary intoxication may be a defence if it prevents the defendant from forming the required intent.
Inheritance Tax Tax Law: A tax on the estate of a deceased person and certain lifetime gifts. The nil-rate band is £325,000; the residence nil-rate band adds up to £175,000 for property left to direct descendants. Rate: 40% above threshold.
Indefinite Leave to Remain Immigration Law: Permission to stay in the UK without any time restriction (also called 'settled status'). Grants the holder the right to live and work in the UK permanently. May be revoked on grounds of criminality, deception, or prolonged absence.
Introductory Tenancy Housing Law: A probationary tenancy (usually 12 months) granted by local authorities to new tenants. The tenant has limited security; if problems arise, the authority may recover possession without proving grounds.
Independent Producer Broadcasting: A television production company not owned by a broadcaster. Under Communications Act 2003, public service broadcasters must commission a certain proportion of content from independent producers.
การเลือกปฏิบัติโดยอ้อม Equality & Discrimination: Applying a provision, criterion, or practice (PCP) which puts persons sharing a protected characteristic at a particular disadvantage, and which cannot be shown to be a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim (s.19 Equality Act 2010).
การไร้ที่อยู่โดยเจตนา Social Housing: Under Part VII Housing Act 1996, a person is intentionally homeless if they deliberately did or failed to do something that caused them to lose accommodation that was available and reasonable to occupy.
โทษ IPP (จำคุกไม่กำหนดระยะ) Prison & Parole: Imprisonment for Public Protection — an indeterminate sentence abolished in 2012 (LASPO Act) but still affecting thousands of prisoners. Requires the Parole Board to be satisfied the prisoner is safe to release before they can be freed after their tariff.
การตายโดยไม่มีพินัยกรรม Wills, Probate & Succession: Dying without a valid will. The estate is distributed according to the statutory intestacy rules under the Administration of Estates Act 1925, favouring spouse/civil partner and close relatives.
ผู้มีส่วนได้เสีย Coroners & Inquests: A person with a sufficient interest in an inquest to participate (e.g., family members, medical practitioners, employers). They may ask questions of witnesses and make submissions.
กรรมาธิการอำนาจสอบสวน Information Law: The independent judicial commissioner overseeing the use of investigatory powers (interception, equipment interference, bulk acquisition) under the Investigatory Powers Act 2016.
หนังสือแจ้งปรับปรุง Food Safety & Standards: A notice served by an environmental health officer requiring a food business operator to rectify contraventions of food hygiene regulations within a specified time. Failure to comply is a criminal offence.
ความยินยอมที่ได้รับแจ้ง Medical Law: The requirement that a patient must be told of material risks of a proposed treatment before giving consent. A risk is material if a reasonable person in the patient's position would attach significance to it (Montgomery v Lanarkshire [2015]).
การตายโดยไม่มีพินัยกรรม Wills & Probate: Dying without a valid will. The estate is distributed according to the statutory intestacy rules in the Administration of Estates Act 1925 — generally to spouse/civil partner, then children, then parents, then siblings.
การเลือกปฏิบัติโดยอ้อม Equality & Discrimination Law: Applying a provision, criterion, or practice (PCP) that appears neutral but puts persons sharing a protected characteristic at a particular disadvantage compared with others, unless objectively justified (Equality Act 2010, s.19).
ผู้สนับสนุนอิสระด้านความสามารถทางจิต Court of Protection: An advocate appointed under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 to represent a person who lacks capacity and has no family or friends appropriate to consult about serious medical treatment or changes of accommodation.
คำสั่งพักงานชั่วคราว Professional Discipline: A temporary order suspending a professional's registration pending investigation and hearing, imposed where public protection requires immediate action. Must be reviewed periodically.

J

การทบทวนคำสั่งทางปกครอง Administrative & Public Law: The process by which the High Court supervises the exercise of public power. It ensures public bodies act within their legal authority and follow fair procedures.
Judicial Notice Evidence & Procedure: The process by which a court accepts certain facts as true without requiring formal proof. Courts take judicial notice of matters of common knowledge and matters that can be verified from authoritative sources (e.g., the date of Easter, the value of sterling).
Judicial Commissioner Cyber & Technology Law: A senior judge who, under the Investigatory Powers Act 2016, must approve warrants for interception, equipment interference, and bulk data acquisition — the 'double-lock' mechanism ensuring both ministerial and judicial oversight.
Joint Enterprise Criminal Law: The principle that secondary parties who assist or encourage a crime are liable alongside the principal offender. Following R v Jogee [2016], the prosecution must prove the secondary party intended to assist or encourage the crime.
Joint Tenancy Land Law: A form of co-ownership where co-owners own the whole property together with a right of survivorship (the last survivor takes the whole). Distinguished from tenancy in common.
ผู้พิพากษาทหาร Military Law: A legally qualified judge who presides over courts martial proceedings, directing the lay members (military panel) on matters of law and summing up the evidence.
กฎหมายบังคับ International Law: Peremptory norms of international law from which no derogation is permitted (e.g., prohibitions on genocide, torture, slavery). They override treaty obligations and customary international law.
กฎหมายบังคับ International Law: Peremptory norms of international law from which no derogation is permitted. Examples include the prohibitions on torture, genocide, and slavery. These norms are binding on all states regardless of treaty obligations.

L

Laches Equity & Trusts: An equitable doctrine by which a court may refuse a remedy to a claimant who has unreasonably delayed in asserting their rights, causing prejudice to the defendant.
สิทธิการเช่า Land Law: An estate in land for a fixed term (term of years absolute). The tenant holds the land subject to the terms of the lease and the obligations of the landlord-tenant relationship.
Lien: A right to retain possession of another person's property until a debt owed by the property's owner is discharged. A common law lien is a passive right of retention; an equitable lien may be enforced by sale.
Limitation Period: The period within which legal proceedings must be commenced. In tort and contract, generally 6 years from the date the cause of action accrued (Limitation Act 1980). Personal injury claims must generally be brought within 3 years.
Liquidated Damages Contract Law: A sum fixed in advance by the parties to a contract as the amount of damages payable for a specified breach. If the sum is a genuine pre-estimate of loss, it is enforceable; if it is a penalty, it may not be (Cavendish Square Holding v Makdessi [2015]).
Leave to Remain Immigration & Asylum Law: Permission granted by the Home Secretary for a non-British citizen to stay in the United Kingdom. Leave may be limited (for a specific period) or indefinite (ILR — permanent residence).
Leniency Competition Law: A programme under which the first member of a cartel to report the cartel to the CMA receives immunity from fines. Subsequent reporters may receive reduced fines.
Listed Building Planning & Land Use Law: A building of special architectural or historic interest, included on the statutory list maintained by Historic England. Listed building consent is required for works affecting its character.
Lex Loci Damni Conflict of Laws: Latin: 'the law of the place of the damage'. Under the Rome II Regulation, the general rule for determining the applicable law in non-contractual obligations.
Laches Equity & Trusts: An equitable defence barring a claim where the claimant has delayed unreasonably in bringing proceedings and it would be unjust to grant relief. Unlike limitation periods, laches is discretionary.
Litigant in Person Evidence & Procedure: A party to court proceedings who represents themselves without a lawyer. Also known as a 'self-represented litigant'. The court has a duty to ensure fair treatment and may make reasonable adjustments.
ใบอนุญาตอาคารขึ้นทะเบียน Planning & Land Use Law: Consent required before carrying out works to a listed building that would affect its character as a building of special architectural or historic interest. It is a criminal offence to carry out unauthorised works to a listed building (Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990).
Letters of Administration Wills, Probate & Succession: A grant issued by the Probate Registry authorising a person (administrator) to deal with the estate of someone who has died without a will (intestate) or without appointing an executor. The administrator has similar powers and duties to an executor.
Locking On Criminal Law: A protest tactic involving attaching oneself or an object to another person, object, or land to create a physical obstruction. Criminalised by the Public Order Act 2023, s.1, where it causes or is capable of causing serious disruption. Maximum penalty: 6 months' imprisonment. Part of a series of new offences targeting disruptive protest tactics.
Leasehold Enfranchisement Property Law: The statutory right of leaseholders to purchase the freehold of their property (or, for flats, to collectively purchase the freehold of the building). For houses, the right arises under the Leasehold Reform Act 1967. For flats, collective enfranchisement is governed by the Leasehold Reform Housing and Urban Development Act 1993. The purchase price is determined by a statutory valuation formula.
Loss of Control Criminal Law: A partial defence to murder under ss.54-56 Coroners and Justice Act 2009, replacing the former defence of provocation. Requires a qualifying trigger (fear of serious violence or circumstances of an extremely grave character giving a justifiable sense of being seriously wronged) and that a person of the defendant's sex and age with a normal degree of tolerance and self-restraint might have reacted in the same or a similar way.
ความช่วยเหลือทางกฎหมาย Evidence & Procedure: Public funding for legal advice and representation, available to individuals who cannot afford to pay for legal services. Now administered by the Legal Aid Agency under the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO). Eligibility depends on means and merits tests.
Locus Standi Administrative & Public Law: Latin: 'place of standing'. The right of a party to bring an action or appear in court. In judicial review, the applicant must have 'sufficient interest' in the matter (Senior Courts Act 1981, s.31(3)).
Listed Building Planning & Land Use: A building included on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest maintained by Historic England. Grade I (exceptional), Grade II* (particularly important), Grade II (special interest).
ใบอนุญาตอาคารขึ้นทะเบียน Planning & Land Use: Consent required under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 for any works that would affect the character of a listed building. Unauthorised works are a criminal offence.
Looked After Child Family Law: A child who is in the care of the local authority by virtue of a care order, or who is accommodated by the local authority for more than 24 hours with parental agreement (s.20 Children Act 1989).
Liquidated Damages Contract Law: A sum specified in the contract as payable on breach. Enforceable if it represents a genuine pre-estimate of loss; unenforceable if it is a penalty (Cavendish Square Holdings v Makdessi [2015]).
Loss of Amenity Tort Law: A head of damages in personal injury claims compensating for the reduction in the claimant's ability to enjoy life (e.g., inability to pursue hobbies, loss of senses).
Loss of Control Criminal Law: A partial defence to murder under ss.54-56 Coroners and Justice Act 2009 replacing provocation. Requires a qualifying trigger (fear of serious violence or circumstances of an extremely grave character), loss of self-control, and a person of the defendant's sex and age with a normal degree of tolerance might have reacted in the same way.
สิทธิการเช่า Land Law: An estate in land for a fixed period (term of years absolute). The leaseholder has exclusive possession but the landlord retains the reversion. The lease creates a landlord-tenant relationship.
Licence (Land) Land Law: A permission to enter or use another's land that does not create an interest in land. Distinguished from a lease (Street v Mountford [1985]). A licensee has weaker rights than a tenant.
Liquidator Insolvency Law: An insolvency practitioner appointed to wind up a company. The liquidator's duties include collecting and realising the company's assets, adjudicating creditors' claims, and distributing the proceeds in the statutory order of priority.
Leave to Remain Immigration & Asylum Law: Permission granted by the Home Office to a person to stay in the UK for a limited or indefinite period. Indefinite leave to remain (ILR) is equivalent to permanent residency.
Lawful Basis Data Protection & Privacy: One of six conditions under Article 6 UK GDPR that must be met for processing personal data to be lawful: consent, contract, legal obligation, vital interests, public task, or legitimate interests.
Liquidation Company & Commercial Law: The process of winding up a company's affairs, realising its assets, paying creditors, and distributing any surplus to shareholders. May be compulsory (by court order) or voluntary (by resolution of members or creditors).
Listed Building Administrative Law: A building included on the statutory list of buildings of special architectural or historic interest maintained by Historic England. Listed building consent is required for any works that would affect its character as a building of special interest.
Leave to Remain Immigration Law: Permission granted by the Home Office for a person to stay in the UK for a specified period and purpose, subject to conditions. Must be renewed or varied before expiry. Overstaying is a criminal offence.
Leniency Programme Competition Law: A CMA programme offering immunity or reduced penalties to cartel participants who report infringements and cooperate with investigations. First applicant with evidence may receive full immunity from fines.
Landlord Licensing Housing Law: Licensing schemes under Housing Act 2004 requiring landlords to obtain a licence to let property. Includes mandatory licensing for large HMOs and discretionary additional/selective licensing schemes.
Listed Events Broadcasting: Sporting and other events of national interest (including the Olympics, FIFA World Cup Final, Wimbledon Finals) that must be available on free-to-air television. Listed in Broadcasting Act 1996, Part IV.
Lifetime Allowance Pensions: The limit (abolished April 2024, was £1,073,100) on the total value of pension benefits that could be accumulated tax-advantaged. Excess amounts attracted a charge of 25-55%.
Limited Capability for Work Welfare: The test under Employment and Support Allowance and Universal Credit determining whether a health condition or disability limits someone's ability to work. Assessed by Work Capability Assessment examining functional ability.
เงื่อนไขการปล่อยตัว Prison & Parole: Requirements imposed on a prisoner when released from custody. Standard conditions include reporting to probation, residing at an approved address, and not travelling abroad. Additional conditions may address specific risks.
กฎหมายแห่งที่เกิดละเมิด Conflict of Laws: The law of the place where the tort occurred. Under Rome II Regulation, generally the law applicable to non-contractual obligations.
ใบอนุญาตอาคารขึ้นทะเบียน Heritage & Listed Buildings: Permission required for any works to a listed building that would affect its character as a building of special architectural or historic interest. Includes internal and external works.
ใบอนุญาตอาคารขึ้นทะเบียน Heritage Law: Permission required from the local planning authority for any works that would affect the character of a listed building as a building of special architectural or historic interest.
Leave to Remain Immigration Law: Permission granted by the Home Office to stay in the UK for a specified period or indefinitely (ILR). Different categories include work, study, family, and humanitarian protection.
Licensing Objectives (Gambling) Gambling & Betting Law: The three objectives underpinning the Gambling Act 2005: (1) preventing gambling from being a source of crime; (2) ensuring gambling is fair and open; (3) protecting children and vulnerable persons from harm.
หนังสือมอบอำนาจถาวร Court of Protection: A legal document allowing a chosen person (attorney) to make decisions on behalf of someone (donor) who loses mental capacity. Two types: Property and Financial Affairs, and Health and Welfare. Must be registered with the Office of the Public Guardian.
มาตรการคุ้มครองเสรีภาพ Court of Protection: Proposed replacement for the Deprivation of Liberty Safeguards (DoLS), introduced by the Mental Capacity (Amendment) Act 2019. Provides streamlined authorisation for deprivations of liberty in care settings. Implementation has been significantly delayed.

M

Mens Rea Criminal Law: The mental element ('guilty mind') required for criminal liability. Different offences require different levels of mens rea: intention, recklessness, or negligence.
Mandamus Administrative & Public Law: A prerogative remedy (now called a 'mandatory order') by which the High Court compels a public body to perform a public duty it has failed to carry out.
Mitigation: The duty of a claimant to take reasonable steps to minimise their loss following a breach of contract or tort. A claimant cannot recover damages for losses they could reasonably have avoided.
จำนอง Land Law: A security interest in real property given by a borrower (mortgagor) to a lender (mortgagee) as security for a loan. The borrower retains possession; the lender has a right to possession and a power of sale in the event of default.
การฟอกเงิน Banking & Finance Law: The process of converting the proceeds of crime into apparently legitimate money or assets. Criminalised under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002. Financial institutions must report suspicious activity to the NCA.
การควบคุมการควบรวมกิจการ Competition Law: The regulatory regime under the Enterprise Act 2002 requiring the CMA to review mergers that meet jurisdictional thresholds (£70m+ turnover or 25%+ share of supply) and may substantially lessen competition.
Material Consideration Planning & Land Use Law: A factor relevant to the use and development of land that must be taken into account in determining a planning application (e.g., traffic, design, environmental impact, planning policy).
การพิจารณาใหม่ภาคบังคับ Social Welfare & Benefits Law: A required step before appealing a benefit decision to the First-tier Tribunal. The DWP reviews the decision internally, and the claimant receives a Mandatory Reconsideration Notice.
การไกล่เกลี่ย Arbitration & ADR: A voluntary, non-binding ADR process where an independent mediator facilitates negotiation between parties. Any settlement reached is contractually binding once signed.
Maritime Lien Maritime & Shipping Law: A privileged claim upon a ship (and sometimes its cargo and freight) that arises by operation of law and travels with the property regardless of changes in ownership. Includes salvage, collision damage, and seamen's wages.
Mitigation Contract Law: The duty on an injured party to take reasonable steps to minimise their loss following a breach of contract or tort. Failure to mitigate reduces the damages recoverable. The claimant cannot recover losses they could reasonably have avoided.
McKenzie Friend Evidence & Procedure: A person who assists a litigant in person in court by taking notes, quietly offering advice, and helping organise documents. Named after McKenzie v McKenzie [1971]. A McKenzie Friend has no right of audience unless granted by the court.
Moratorium Insolvency & Restructuring Law: A legally imposed period during which creditors cannot take enforcement action against a debtor. In corporate insolvency, an administration moratorium prevents creditors from enforcing security or commencing legal proceedings without the court's permission. A standalone moratorium was introduced by the Corporate Insolvency and Governance Act 2020.
การพิจารณาใหม่ภาคบังคับ Social Welfare & Benefits Law: A compulsory internal review by the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) of a benefits decision before a claimant can appeal to the First-tier Tribunal. The claimant must request mandatory reconsideration within one month of the original decision. Introduced by the Universal Credit regulations.
Material Risk Medical Law: In medical law (following Montgomery v Lanarkshire [2015]), a risk is material if a reasonable person in the patient's position would be likely to attach significance to it, or if the doctor should be aware that the particular patient would attach significance to it.
ศาลสุขภาพจิต Mental Health Law: A First-tier Tribunal that reviews the detention of patients under the Mental Health Act 1983 and may order discharge.
การฟอกเงิน Criminal Law: Offences under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 (ss.327-329): concealing, arranging, or acquiring criminal property. Regulated sector (banks, solicitors, etc.) must report suspicious activity.
การใช้ข้อมูลส่วนบุคคลในทางที่ผิด Tort Law: A cause of action developed by the courts protecting privacy rights under Article 8 ECHR. The claimant must show a reasonable expectation of privacy and that the balancing exercise favours privacy over freedom of expression.
Mitigation Contract Law: The duty on the innocent party to take reasonable steps to minimise their loss following a breach of contract or tort. Unmitigated losses are irrecoverable.
Material Contribution Tort Law: An alternative test for causation used where the but-for test fails: the defendant's breach need only have materially contributed to the damage (Bonnington Castings v Wardlaw [1956]).
Members' Voluntary Liquidation Company & Commercial Law: A winding up of a solvent company by its members. The directors must make a statutory declaration of solvency.
Minority Shareholder Protection Company & Commercial Law: Remedies available to shareholders who are unfairly prejudiced: unfair prejudice petition (s.994 CA 2006), derivative claim (ss.260-264), just and equitable winding up (s.122(1)(g) IA 1986).
Margin of Appreciation Human Rights Law: The latitude given to national authorities by the European Court of Human Rights in determining whether an interference with a Convention right is justified. Wider for moral/cultural issues, narrower for fundamental rights.
Mitigating Factor Criminal Law: A circumstance that reduces the seriousness of an offence or the culpability of the offender for sentencing purposes, such as remorse, mental disorder, good character, or provocation.
Market Definition Competition Law: The process of identifying the relevant product and geographic market for competition analysis. Based on demand-side and supply-side substitutability — whether customers would switch products or suppliers in response to a price increase.
Market Investigation Competition Law: A detailed examination by the CMA of an entire market where competition may not be working well. May result in remedies including behavioural undertakings or structural divestiture. Governed by Enterprise Act 2002, Part 4.
การควบคุมการควบรวมกิจการ Competition Law: The regulatory regime requiring notification and approval of mergers and acquisitions that meet jurisdictional thresholds. UK regime applies where combined turnover exceeds £70m or the target's UK share of supply exceeds 25%.
Media Plurality Broadcasting: The principle that media ownership should be sufficiently diverse to ensure a variety of voices and viewpoints. Ofcom conducts plurality reviews and the Secretary of State may intervene in media mergers on plurality grounds.
Master Trust Pensions: A multi-employer occupational pension scheme where each employer has its own section but governance and investment are centralised. NEST is the largest UK master trust. Subject to authorisation by The Pensions Regulator.
การพิจารณาใหม่ภาคบังคับ Welfare: A requirement before appealing most benefit decisions to a tribunal. The claimant must first ask the DWP to look at the decision again. Only after receiving the mandatory reconsideration notice can they appeal.
Means-Tested Benefit Welfare: A benefit where entitlement and amount depend on income and capital. Universal Credit, Pension Credit, and Housing Benefit are means-tested; PIP and Attendance Allowance are not.
พระราชบัญญัติคริสตจักร Ecclesiastical Law: A form of primary legislation specific to the Church of England, prepared by the General Synod and having the same force as an Act of Parliament once approved by both Houses and given Royal Assent.
การใช้ข้อมูลส่วนบุคคลในทางที่ผิด Defamation & Privacy: The modern tort protecting information in respect of which a person has a reasonable expectation of privacy. Developed from breach of confidence, it involves balancing Article 8 (privacy) against Article 10 (freedom of expression) rights.
การใช้ตลาดโดยมิชอบ Financial Services: Conduct prohibited under Part VIII FSMA 2000 and the Market Abuse Regulation, including insider dealing, unlawful disclosure of inside information, and market manipulation.
คำสั่งบังคับ Administrative & Public Law: A judicial review remedy (formerly mandamus) that compels a public body to perform a public duty. Typically used where a body has unlawfully refused or failed to act.
อนุสัญญามอนทรีออล Aviation & Transport Law: International treaty governing airline liability for passenger death/injury, baggage loss/damage, and delay on international flights. Implemented in UK law by the Carriage by Air Act 1961.
ข้อเสนอที่ได้เปรียบที่สุด Procurement Law: The procurement criterion requiring contracting authorities to evaluate tenders based on quality and price (or cost), ensuring value for money.
ระยะเวลาขั้นต่ำ Sentencing Law: In a life sentence for murder, the minimum period the offender must serve in prison before becoming eligible to apply to the Parole Board for release.
การใช้ข้อมูลส่วนบุคคลในทางที่ผิด Defamation & Privacy: A cause of action protecting against the unjustified publication or use of private information where the claimant had a reasonable expectation of privacy. Developed through Campbell v MGN [2004].
การพิจารณาใหม่ภาคบังคับ Social Welfare Law: A compulsory first stage of challenging a benefit decision. The claimant asks the DWP to review the decision before they can appeal to the First-tier Tribunal.
การควบคุมการควบรวมกิจการ Competition Law: The CMA's power to review mergers that create or enhance a substantial lessening of competition. The CMA can block mergers, require divestments, or impose conditions.
การเปลี่ยนแปลงการใช้ที่สำคัญ Planning Law: A change in the use of land or buildings that constitutes 'development' under s.55 TCPA 1990 and therefore requires planning permission. The Use Classes Order categorises different uses.
อนุสัญญามอนทรีออล Aviation & Transport Law: International convention (1999) governing airline liability for passenger death/injury, baggage loss/damage, and delay on international flights. Given domestic effect by the Carriage by Air Act 1961.

N

Natural Justice Administrative & Public Law: The principles of procedural fairness applied by courts and public bodies: (1) the right to a fair hearing (audi alteram partem), and (2) the rule against bias (nemo judex in causa sua).
ความประมาทเลินเล่อ Tort Law: A tort consisting of a breach of a duty of care owed to the claimant, causing reasonably foreseeable damage. The elements are: duty, breach, causation, and remoteness (Donoghue v Stevenson [1932]; Caparo v Dickman [1990]).
Nuisance Tort Law: An unlawful interference with a person's use or enjoyment of land (private nuisance) or with a right common to the general public (public nuisance). Private nuisance involves a balancing of competing land uses.
Nemo Dat Quod Non Habet Contract Law: Latin: 'no one gives what they do not have'. A transferor of goods cannot give a better title than they possess. Exceptions exist under the Sale of Goods Act 1979 (e.g., sale in market overt, voidable title, estoppel).
Nemo Judex in Causa Sua Administrative & Public Law: Latin: 'no one should be a judge in their own cause'. A principle of natural justice requiring that decision-makers be free from bias or personal interest in the matter before them.
Novation Contract Law: The substitution of a new contract for an existing one, or the replacement of one party with a new party with the consent of all parties. Unlike assignment, novation transfers both rights and obligations.
Norwich Pharmacal Order Evidence & Procedure: A court order requiring a third party who has become 'mixed up' in wrongdoing (innocently) to disclose information or documents to help identify the wrongdoer. Named after Norwich Pharmacal Co v Customs and Excise [1974].
Novation Contract Law: The substitution of a new contract for an existing one, with the consent of all parties. Unlike assignment, novation transfers both rights and obligations. The original contract is extinguished and replaced. All three parties (original party, new party, and counterparty) must agree for novation to be effective.
การปล่อยก๊าซเรือนกระจกสุทธิเป็นศูนย์ Environmental Law: The legal target under the Climate Change Act 2008 (as amended in 2019) requiring the UK to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. This means that emissions produced must be balanced by an equivalent amount removed from the atmosphere (through carbon capture, afforestation, etc.).
Nuclear Site Licence Energy Law: A licence required under the Nuclear Installations Act 1965 for any site used for installing or operating a nuclear installation. Licences are granted by the Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR) and may be subject to conditions on safety, security, and environmental protection. Operating without a licence is a criminal offence.
Necessity Criminal Law: A common law defence rarely recognised in English law. Where the defendant acts to prevent a greater evil, the defence may apply in limited circumstances (Re A (Conjoined Twins) [2001]). Distinct from duress of circumstances, though the boundaries are unclear.
การแปลงสัญชาติ Immigration & Asylum Law: The process by which a foreign national acquires British citizenship by application to the Home Secretary. Requirements include residence in the UK, good character, knowledge of English, and passing the Life in the UK test (s.6 British Nationality Act 1981).
หลักการไม่ส่งกลับ Immigration & Asylum Law: The principle that a state must not return a person to a country where they face a real risk of persecution, torture, or inhuman treatment. Enshrined in Article 33 of the 1951 Refugee Convention and Article 3 ECHR.
ญาติใกล้ชิดที่สุด Mental Health Law: A person defined by s.26 MHA 1983 (spouse, parent, eldest sibling, etc.) who has certain rights regarding the patient's detention, including the power to discharge.
กลไกการส่งต่อแห่งชาติ Criminal Law: The UK framework for identifying and supporting victims of modern slavery and human trafficking. First responders (police, councils, etc.) refer potential victims for a 'reasonable grounds' and then 'conclusive grounds' decision.
Novus Actus Interveniens Tort Law: A new intervening act that breaks the chain of causation between the defendant's breach and the claimant's damage. May be the act of a third party, the claimant, or a natural event.
Non-Molestation Order Family Law: An order under s.42 Family Law Act 1996 prohibiting a person from molesting an associated person (partner, ex-partner, family member). Breach is a criminal offence punishable by up to 5 years' imprisonment.
Notice to Quit Housing Law: Written notice served by a landlord or tenant to terminate a periodic tenancy. For residential tenancies, minimum periods apply (usually at least 4 weeks for the tenant, longer for the landlord).
NEST Pensions: National Employment Savings Trust — a government-backed defined contribution pension scheme established under Pensions Act 2008 to provide a low-cost workplace pension for employers without suitable existing schemes.
Notifiable Event Pensions: Certain corporate events (e.g., sale of controlling company, significant business restructuring) that scheme trustees and sometimes employers must notify to The Pensions Regulator under the notifiable events framework.
การปล่อยก๊าซเรือนกระจกสุทธิเป็นศูนย์ Energy Law: The legal target under the Climate Change Act 2008 (as amended) requiring the UK to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050, meaning emissions produced are balanced by emissions removed.
การแปลงสัญชาติ Immigration & Nationality: The process by which a foreign national acquires British citizenship by application under s.6 British Nationality Act 1981. Requirements include 5 years' residence (3 if married to a British citizen), good character, and knowledge of English.
คำตัดสินแบบบรรยาย Coroners & Inquests: An inquest conclusion in which the jury or coroner records a brief factual statement of the circumstances of the death, rather than a short-form verdict such as 'accident' or 'unlawful killing'.
หลักการไม่ส่งกลับ Refugee & Asylum Law: The principle that a state must not return (refouler) a person to a country where they would face persecution, torture, or inhuman or degrading treatment. A cornerstone of refugee law and Article 3 ECHR.
National Referral Mechanism (NRM) Modern Slavery & Trafficking: The UK framework for identifying and supporting victims of modern slavery and human trafficking. Referrals are made by 'first responder' organisations. A positive decision triggers access to support services and a recovery period.

O

Obiter Dictum Evidence & Procedure: A remark or observation made by a judge that is not essential to the decision. Obiter dicta are persuasive but not binding on lower courts.
Offer Contract Law: An expression of willingness to contract on specified terms, made with the intention that it shall become binding as soon as it is accepted by the person to whom it is addressed. Distinguished from an invitation to treat.
Oblique Intent Criminal Law: A form of intention in criminal law where the defendant does not desire a particular result but foresees it as a virtually certain consequence of their actions. The jury may find intention where the consequence was a virtual certainty and the defendant appreciated that this was so (R v Woollin [1999]).
Overriding Interest Property Law: An interest in registered land that is binding on a purchaser even though it is not protected by an entry on the register. Listed in Schedule 3 of the Land Registration Act 2002. Important examples include the rights of persons in actual occupation (para 2), legal easements, and certain leases not exceeding seven years.
Operating Licence (Gambling) Gambling & Betting Law: A licence required from the Gambling Commission by any person providing gambling facilities in or to Great Britain. Types include casino, bingo, betting, and remote (online) operating licences. Breach of licensing requirements is a criminal offence under the Gambling Act 2005.
Office for Environmental Protection (OEP) Environmental Law: An independent body established by the Environment Act 2021 to scrutinise government environmental policy and law in England. The OEP can investigate complaints, issue decision notices, and bring legal proceedings for serious failures to comply with environmental law.
Ouster Clause Administrative & Public Law: A statutory provision purporting to exclude judicial review of a decision. The courts have generally been reluctant to give effect to ouster clauses (Anisminic v FCC [1969]), treating decisions made in error of law as nullities that the clause does not protect.
Occupational Requirement Equality & Discrimination Law: An exception allowing discrimination where a particular protected characteristic is a genuine occupational requirement for the job (Schedule 9, EA 2010).
Offer to Make Amends Tort Law: A statutory defence under s.2-4 Defamation Act 1996 where the defendant offers to publish a correction, apologise, and pay compensation. If refused, the offer is a defence unless the defendant knew or had reason to believe the statement was defamatory.
Ofcom Cyber & Technology Law: The Office of Communications — the UK's converged regulator for broadcasting, telecommunications, and postal services, established by the Communications Act 2003.
Occupiers' Liability Tort Law: The duty owed by an occupier of premises to visitors (Occupiers' Liability Act 1957) and trespassers (Occupiers' Liability Act 1984) who are injured on the premises.
Overreaching Land Law: The process by which a beneficial interest under a trust of land is transferred from the land to the purchase money when the buyer pays at least two trustees. Protects the buyer from being bound by the beneficiary's interest.
Overriding Interest Land Law: An interest that binds a purchaser of registered land even though it does not appear on the register. Schedule 3 Land Registration Act 2002 lists overriding interests including interests of persons in actual occupation.
Occupation Order Family Law: An order under s.33 Family Law Act 1996 regulating the occupation of the family home. May exclude a party from the home or restrict them to certain parts. Available to spouses, cohabitants, and former partners.
Ofcom Broadcasting: The Office of Communications — the independent regulator for communications industries in the UK, responsible for television, radio, telecoms, postal services, and (under Online Safety Act 2023) online safety.
สำนักงานกำกับพลังงาน Energy Law: The Office of Gas and Electricity Markets. The independent energy regulator for Great Britain, responsible for protecting consumer interests, promoting competition, and regulating network companies.
สำนักงานกำกับน้ำ Water & Sewerage Law: The Water Services Regulation Authority — the economic regulator of the water and sewerage sectors in England and Wales. Sets price controls, performance standards, and promotes competition.
สำนักงานกำกับน้ำ Water & Sewerage Law: The Water Services Regulation Authority — the economic regulator of the water and sewerage sectors in England & Wales. Sets price limits, performance standards, and promotes competition.
Operating Licence (Gambling) Gambling & Betting Law: A licence issued by the Gambling Commission authorising a person to provide gambling facilities. Different types include remote (online), non-remote, betting, bingo, and casino licences.
สำนักงานผู้พิทักษ์สาธารณะ Court of Protection: An executive agency of the Ministry of Justice that registers LPAs and enduring powers of attorney, supervises deputies, and investigates concerns about the actions of attorneys and deputies.

P

Precedent: The principle that courts are bound to follow legal principles established by higher courts in earlier decisions (stare decisis).
การแอบอ้าง Intellectual Property: A common law tort protecting goodwill. The claimant must show goodwill, misrepresentation (leading the public to believe the defendant's goods or services are the claimant's), and damage (Reckitt & Colman v Borden [1990]).
สิทธิบัตร Intellectual Property: A registered intellectual property right granting the holder a monopoly to make, use, and sell an invention for up to 20 years. Governed by the Patents Act 1977.
การพิสูจน์พินัยกรรม Wills & Probate: The legal process of administering the estate of a deceased person. A grant of probate confirms the authority of the executor named in the will to deal with the estate's assets.
Privity of Contract Contract Law: The rule that only parties to a contract can sue or be sued on it. The Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 creates an important statutory exception, allowing third parties to enforce contractual terms in specified circumstances.
Promissory Estoppel Equity & Trusts: An equitable doctrine preventing a party from going back on a promise not to enforce strict legal rights where the other party has relied on that promise. Established in Central London Property Trust v High Trees House [1947]. It is a shield, not a sword — it cannot create new causes of action.
Points-Based System Immigration & Asylum Law: The UK immigration system for work visas (Skilled Worker, Global Talent, Student, etc.), under which applicants must score sufficient points based on criteria such as job offer, salary, and English language ability.
Polluter Pays Principle Environmental Law: The principle that the person or entity responsible for causing pollution should bear the costs of managing and remedying the environmental damage.
ข้อมูลส่วนบุคคล Data Protection & Privacy Law: Any information relating to an identified or identifiable living individual (data subject). Includes names, identification numbers, location data, online identifiers, and factors specific to physical, genetic, or social identity.
Prima Facie: Latin: 'at first sight'. Evidence that is sufficient to establish a fact or raise a presumption of fact unless rebutted. A prima facie case is one that appears, on the face of it, to be well-founded.
Product Liability Consumer Protection Law: Strict liability of producers for damage caused by defective products under the Consumer Protection Act 1987. The claimant need not prove negligence, only that the product was defective and caused damage.
สาเหตุใกล้ชิด Insurance Law: In insurance law, the dominant or effective cause of a loss. The insurer is only liable if the loss was proximately caused by an insured peril.
การส่งมอบงานจริง Construction Law: The stage in a construction project when the works are substantially complete and the employer can take possession. Triggers release of half the retention money and the commencement of the defects liability period.
ใบอนุญาตก่อสร้าง Planning & Land Use Law: Formal approval from the Local Planning Authority required before carrying out 'development' as defined in s.55 Town and Country Planning Act 1990.
การพัฒนาที่ได้รับอนุญาต Planning & Land Use Law: Development for which planning permission is automatically granted by the General Permitted Development Order 2015, without the need for a planning application (e.g., certain householder extensions).
ใบอนุญาตสถานประกอบการ Licensing Law: A licence required under the Licensing Act 2003 for premises used for the sale of alcohol, provision of regulated entertainment, or late-night refreshment.
Privity of Contract Contract Law: The doctrine that only parties to a contract can enforce its terms or be bound by them. Modified by the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, which allows third parties to enforce terms in certain circumstances.
Part 36 Offer Evidence & Procedure: A formal settlement offer made under Part 36 of the Civil Procedure Rules. If the offer is not accepted and the offeree fails to beat it at trial, adverse costs and interest consequences follow. Designed to encourage settlement.
Pre-Action Protocol Evidence & Procedure: Steps that parties are expected to take before commencing court proceedings, as set out in the Civil Procedure Rules. Protocols require exchange of information, attempts at settlement, and disclosure of key documents.
Plea Bargain Criminal Law: An agreement in criminal proceedings where the defendant agrees to plead guilty, often to a lesser charge, in exchange for a more lenient sentence or the dropping of other charges. While common in the US, plea bargaining in England & Wales is more limited and regulated by the Goodyear indication procedure.
Prescribed Person Employment Law: In whistleblowing law, a person or body designated by the Secretary of State to whom a worker may make a qualifying disclosure. Prescribed persons include regulators such as the FCA, CQC, HSE, and HMRC. Disclosures to prescribed persons are protected under ERA 1996 Part IVA.
การพัฒนาที่ได้รับอนุญาต Planning & Land Use Law: Development that can be carried out without needing to apply for planning permission, as specified in the Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) (England) Order 2015. Examples include certain home extensions, loft conversions, and changes of use. Local authorities may restrict permitted development rights through Article 4 directions.
Promissory Estoppel Contract Law: An equitable doctrine preventing a party from going back on a clear and unequivocal promise to forego their strict legal rights, where the other party has relied on that promise and it would be inequitable to allow the promisor to resile from it. Established in Central London Property Trust v High Trees House [1947] by Denning J. It operates as a 'shield, not a sword' — it can only be used as a defence, not to found a cause of action (Combe v Combe [1951]).
Possession Order Landlord & Tenant: A court order requiring a tenant or occupier to leave a property. In residential cases, a landlord must obtain a possession order before evicting a tenant — self-help eviction is a criminal offence under the Protection from Eviction Act 1977. Possession orders may be outright (immediate) or suspended (conditional on compliance with terms).
องค์กรต้องห้าม Counter-Terrorism: An organisation that has been banned by the Home Secretary under the Terrorism Act 2000 on the ground that it is concerned in terrorism. It is a criminal offence to belong to, invite support for, or display support for a proscribed organisation. The current list is maintained in Schedule 2 of the Act.
Price Cap (Energy) Energy Law: The maximum amount that energy suppliers can charge domestic customers on a default tariff, set quarterly by Ofgem. The price cap limits the unit rate for gas and electricity and the daily standing charge. It does not cap total bills, which depend on consumption.
ฟิชชิง Cyber & Technology Law: A form of social engineering in which a fraudster sends deceptive communications (typically email) purporting to be from a legitimate organisation to trick the recipient into revealing personal information, passwords, or financial details. Phishing may constitute offences under the Fraud Act 2006 (fraud by false representation) and the Computer Misuse Act 1990.
Penalty Clause Contract Law: A contractual term imposing a detriment on the contract-breaker out of all proportion to any legitimate interest of the innocent party. Following ParkingEye v Beavis [2015], the test is whether the clause is extravagant, exorbitant, or unconscionable relative to the legitimate interest being protected.
Proprietary Estoppel Land Law: An equitable doctrine preventing a landowner from asserting their strict legal rights where another person has relied to their detriment on a promise or assurance relating to the land. The court must consider the equity arising and the minimum necessary to satisfy it.
Pledge Commercial Law: A bailment of personal property as security for a debt. The pledgor delivers possession to the pledgee, who may sell the property if the debt is not repaid. The pledgor retains ownership.
Positive Covenant Land Law: An obligation requiring the landowner to do something (e.g., maintain a fence). Positive covenants do not generally bind successors in title at common law (Austerberry v Oldham Corporation [1885]), though workarounds exist.
Privity of Estate Land Law: The relationship between a landlord and tenant, or their successors, arising from the tenure. Covenants that 'touch and concern' the land pass with the estate under the Landlord and Tenant (Covenants) Act 1995.
Perjury Criminal Law: The criminal offence of making a false statement on oath in judicial proceedings, knowing it to be false or not believing it to be true. Governed by the Perjury Act 1911. Maximum sentence: 7 years' imprisonment.
Perverting the Course of Justice Criminal Law: A common law offence committed by acts tending and intended to pervert the course of public justice, such as fabricating evidence, intimidating witnesses, or making false statements to the police. Maximum sentence: life imprisonment.
Proportionality Administrative & Public Law: A ground of judicial review, particularly where human rights are engaged. The court asks whether the measure: (1) pursues a legitimate aim; (2) is rationally connected to that aim; (3) uses no more than necessary means; and (4) strikes a fair balance between individual rights and the public interest.
Peppercorn Rent Land Law: A nominal rent (often literally one peppercorn) with no monetary value. Under the Leasehold Reform (Ground Rent) Act 2022, ground rent in new long residential leases must be a peppercorn.
ลักษณะที่ได้รับการคุ้มครอง Equality & Discrimination Law: One of the nine characteristics protected by the Equality Act 2010: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage/civil partnership, pregnancy/maternity, race, religion/belief, sex, and sexual orientation.
Positive Action Equality & Discrimination Law: Measures permitted by the Equality Act 2010 (s.158-159) to address disadvantage, different needs, or underrepresentation of people sharing a protected characteristic. Distinguished from (unlawful) positive discrimination.
Public Sector Equality Duty Equality & Discrimination Law: The duty on public bodies to have due regard to the need to eliminate discrimination, advance equality of opportunity, and foster good relations (s.149 EA 2010).
PACE Codes of Practice Criminal Law: Statutory codes (A-H) issued under PACE 1984 governing the exercise of police powers. Breach does not automatically make evidence inadmissible but may lead to exclusion under s.78.
Publication on Matter of Public Interest Tort Law: A defence under s.4 Defamation Act 2013 replacing Reynolds privilege. The defendant must show the statement was on a matter of public interest and they reasonably believed publication was in the public interest.
ความต้องการเร่งด่วน Housing Law: A category under the Housing Act 1996 determining entitlement to accommodation. Includes pregnant women, persons with dependent children, vulnerability, and emergency.
Possession with Intent to Supply Criminal Law: An offence under s.5(3) Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. Penalties depend on the class of drug: Class A carries maximum life imprisonment.
Parol Evidence Rule Contract Law: The rule that where a contract is in writing, extrinsic evidence may not be adduced to add to, vary, or contradict the written terms. Subject to numerous exceptions.
Penalty Clause Contract Law: A contractual provision imposing a detriment on the contract-breaker that is out of all proportion to any legitimate interest of the innocent party. Unenforceable at common law (Cavendish Square Holdings v Makdessi [2015]).
Privity of Contract Contract Law: The doctrine that only parties to a contract can sue or be sued on it. Modified by the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
Private Nuisance Tort Law: An unlawful interference with a person's use or enjoyment of land, or some right over or in connection with it. Requires continuous or recurrent interference and balances factors including locality, duration, and sensitivity.
Public Nuisance Tort Law: An act or omission that materially affects the reasonable comfort and convenience of a class of the public. Both a crime and a tort (the claimant must show special damage beyond that suffered by the public generally).
Proprietary Estoppel Land Law: An equitable doctrine preventing a landowner from going back on an assurance about rights over land where the claimant has relied on the assurance to their detriment. The court satisfies the equity by the minimum award necessary.
Pre-Emption Rights Company & Commercial Law: The right of existing shareholders to be offered new shares before they are offered to outsiders (s.561 Companies Act 2006). Can be disapplied by special resolution.
Positive Obligation Human Rights Law: The duty of the state not merely to refrain from interfering with Convention rights but to take positive steps to secure them. Example: duty to protect life under Article 2 (Osman v UK).
Part 36 Offer Evidence & Procedure: A formal offer to settle made under CPR Part 36. If the offeree fails to beat the offer at trial, there are significant costs consequences (enhanced interest and indemnity costs).
Pre-Action Protocol Evidence & Procedure: A set of steps that parties are expected to follow before issuing court proceedings. Aims to encourage early exchange of information, enable settlement, and ensure that litigation is a last resort.
Proof of Debt Insolvency Law: A claim submitted by a creditor in a liquidation, administration, or bankruptcy to establish their entitlement to share in the distribution of the insolvent estate.
Preferential Creditor Insolvency Law: A creditor who ranks ahead of ordinary unsecured creditors in the distribution of an insolvent estate. Includes employees (arrears of wages up to £800), HMRC for certain tax debts (re-introduced 2020), and pension scheme contributions.
Prescribed Part Insolvency Law: Under s.176A Insolvency Act 1986, a portion of the proceeds of floating charge realisations (up to £800,000) that must be set aside for distribution to unsecured creditors.
Points-Based System Immigration & Asylum Law: The UK immigration system under which applicants for certain visa categories must demonstrate they meet specified criteria and accumulate sufficient points (e.g., Skilled Worker visa).
PAYE Tax Law: Pay As You Earn — the system by which employers deduct income tax and National Insurance contributions from employees' wages and pay them to HMRC.
สิทธิบัตร Intellectual Property: A monopoly right granted for a new invention that involves an inventive step and is capable of industrial application. Registered with the UK Intellectual Property Office. Lasts 20 years from filing.
การแอบอ้าง Intellectual Property: A common law tort protecting unregistered trade marks and business goodwill. Requires: (1) goodwill, (2) misrepresentation likely to deceive, and (3) damage to the claimant (Jif Lemon — Reckitt & Colman v Borden [1990]).
Preferential Creditor Company & Commercial Law: A creditor with statutory priority in insolvency distributions. Includes employees (wages owed, holiday pay) and, since December 2020, HMRC for certain tax debts. Paid after fixed charge holders but before floating charge holders and unsecured creditors.
Proof of Debt Company & Commercial Law: A formal claim submitted by a creditor in insolvency proceedings to establish their right to receive a distribution from the insolvent estate. Must be verified by the insolvency practitioner.
Polluter Pays Principle Environmental Law: The principle that the person or entity responsible for pollution should bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health or the environment. A foundational principle of UK and international environmental law.
การพัฒนาที่ได้รับอนุญาต Administrative Law: Development that is granted planning permission automatically by the Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) Order, without needing to apply to the local planning authority. Includes certain extensions, outbuildings, and changes of use.
Parliamentary Privilege Constitutional Law: The rights and immunities enjoyed by each House of Parliament and their members, including freedom of speech (Article 9, Bill of Rights 1689) — proceedings in Parliament cannot be questioned in any court.
Parliamentary Sovereignty Constitutional Law: The constitutional principle that Parliament is the supreme legal authority in the UK. Parliament can make or unmake any law, and no body can override or set aside its legislation. The cornerstone of the UK constitution (Dicey).
Prerogative Power Constitutional Law: Residual powers of the Crown exercised by ministers without statutory authority, including treaty-making, deployment of armed forces, and the prerogative of mercy. Subject to judicial review (GCHQ case [1985]; Miller v Secretary of State [2017]).
ความรับผิดชอบของบิดามารดา Family Law: All the rights, duties, powers, responsibilities, and authority which by law a parent has in relation to the child and the child's property (s.3 Children Act 1989). Mothers have PR automatically; fathers acquire it through marriage, registration, agreement, or court order.
Proprietary Estoppel Equity & Trusts: An equitable doctrine that arises where: (1) a landowner makes an assurance regarding an interest in land, (2) the claimant relies on that assurance to their detriment, and (3) it would be unconscionable for the landowner to go back on the assurance. The court may satisfy the equity by granting an interest in land, monetary compensation, or other remedy.
Premium Rate Services Broadcasting: Telephone and other services charged at more than the normal rate, regulated by the Phone-paid Services Authority under Communications Act 2003. Includes TV voting lines, chat services, and competition entries.
Product Placement Broadcasting: The inclusion of products, services, or trademarks within a programme in return for payment. Permitted with restrictions under Ofcom rules; must be identified with a 'P' logo and prohibited in certain programmes.
Programme Sponsorship Broadcasting: A form of commercial arrangement where a third party pays to be associated with a programme. Subject to Ofcom rules: must be transparent, sponsor must not influence editorial content, and certain programmes cannot be sponsored.
Public Service Broadcasting Broadcasting: Television and radio services with obligations to provide programming that serves the public interest, including news, education, and content for underserved audiences. PSBs include BBC, ITV, Channel 4, Channel 5, and S4C.
กองทุนคุ้มครองเงินบำนาญ Pensions: A statutory fund established by Pensions Act 2004 that pays compensation to members of eligible defined benefit schemes where the sponsoring employer becomes insolvent with insufficient assets.
Pension Sharing Order Pensions: A court order on divorce under Matrimonial Causes Act 1973, s.24B that transfers a percentage of one party's pension rights to the other, creating an independent pension credit for the recipient.
Protected Pension Age Pensions: A pension age below the normal minimum (currently 55) that some scheme members have retained due to scheme rules in place before 6 April 2006. Allows earlier access without tax penalties.
เงินช่วยเหลือความเป็นอิสระส่วนบุคคล Welfare: A non-means-tested benefit for people aged 16-64 with long-term physical or mental health conditions affecting daily living or mobility. Replaced DLA for working-age claimants from 2013.
ประโยชน์สาธารณะ Charity Law: A requirement under the Charities Act 2011 that all charitable purposes must be for the public benefit. Fee-charging charities must not exclude the poor from benefit.
ลักษณะที่ได้รับการคุ้มครอง Equality & Discrimination: One of nine characteristics protected by the Equality Act 2010: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage & civil partnership, pregnancy & maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation.
Public Sector Equality Duty Equality & Discrimination: The duty under s.149 Equality Act 2010 requiring public authorities to have due regard to eliminating discrimination, advancing equality of opportunity, and fostering good relations between groups sharing a protected characteristic.
Publication on Public Interest Defamation & Privacy: The statutory defence under s.4 Defamation Act 2013 (replacing Reynolds privilege). The defendant must show the statement was on a matter of public interest and they reasonably believed publication was in the public interest.
ความรับผิดชอบของบิดามารดา Childcare & Safeguarding: All the rights, duties, powers, responsibilities, and authority which by law a parent has in relation to a child and the child's property (s.3 Children Act 1989). Mothers acquire it automatically; fathers through marriage, registration, agreement, or court order.
ความต้องการเร่งด่วน Social Housing: A category under Part VII Housing Act 1996 that determines whether a homeless person is owed the main housing duty. Categories include pregnant women, families with dependent children, and vulnerable persons.
คำสั่งห้าม Administrative & Public Law: A judicial review remedy (formerly prohibition) that prevents a public body from acting unlawfully. Can be used prospectively to restrain anticipated unlawful action.
คณะกรรมการพักโทษ Prison & Parole: The independent body that assesses the risk posed by prisoners and decides whether they can be safely released into the community on licence. Makes decisions on indeterminate sentence prisoners and certain determinate sentence prisoners.
กฎหมายที่ใช้บังคับ Conflict of Laws: The system of law with which a contract has its closest and most real connection. Under Rome I Regulation, determined by party choice or, failing that, objective connecting factors.
ใบอนุญาตสถานประกอบการ Licensing Law: A licence issued under the Licensing Act 2003 authorising the use of premises for the sale of alcohol, provision of regulated entertainment, or late-night refreshment.
ใบอนุญาตส่วนบุคคล Licensing Law: A licence held by an individual authorising them to supply or authorise the supply of alcohol. Obtained after completing a licensing qualification.
รายงานป้องกันการเสียชีวิตในอนาคต Coroners & Inquests: A report issued by a coroner where evidence at an inquest reveals a risk of future deaths. The recipient (individual or organisation) must respond within 56 days outlining actions taken or proposed.
องค์กรต้องห้าม Counter-Terrorism Law: An organisation banned by the Home Secretary under the Terrorism Act 2000. It is a criminal offence to belong to, support, or display support for a proscribed organisation.
หน้าที่ Prevent Counter-Terrorism Law: The statutory duty under the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 requiring specified authorities (schools, universities, NHS, prisons) to have due regard to preventing people from being drawn into terrorism.
สัตว์ที่ได้รับการคุ้มครอง Animal Welfare & Agricultural Law: Under the Animal Welfare Act 2006, an animal is protected if it is of a kind commonly domesticated in the British Islands, under the control of man (permanently or temporarily), or not living in a wild state.
สารออกฤทธิ์ต่อจิตประสาท Drug Regulation Law: Under the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016, any substance that produces a psychoactive effect (stimulant, depressant, hallucinogenic) other than exempted substances (alcohol, tobacco, caffeine, medicines, food).
กองทุนคุ้มครองเงินบำนาญ Pensions Law: A statutory body that compensates members of eligible defined benefit pension schemes where the employer becomes insolvent and the scheme is underfunded (Pensions Act 2004).
ลักษณะที่ได้รับการคุ้มครอง Equality & Discrimination Law: One of nine grounds of identity protected from discrimination under the Equality Act 2010: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage/civil partnership, pregnancy/maternity, race, religion/belief, sex, sexual orientation.
Public Sector Equality Duty Equality & Discrimination Law: The duty under s.149 Equality Act 2010 on public bodies to have due regard to eliminating discrimination, advancing equality of opportunity, and fostering good relations between those who share a protected characteristic and those who do not.
ความรับผิดชอบของบิดามารดา Childcare & Safeguarding: All the rights, duties, powers, responsibilities, and authority that by law a parent has in relation to a child and the child's property. Mothers have automatic PR; fathers acquire it through marriage, registration, agreement, or court order.
เงินช่วยเหลือความเป็นอิสระส่วนบุคคล Social Welfare Law: A non-means-tested disability benefit for people aged 16-66 with long-term health conditions or disabilities that affect daily living and/or mobility. Assessed by functional ability.
การแอบอ้าง Intellectual Property Law: A common law tort protecting unregistered goodwill. Requires proof of goodwill, misrepresentation (leading or likely to lead the public to believe goods/services are those of the claimant), and damage.
ข้อถือสิทธิสิทธิบัตร Intellectual Property Law: The legal definition of the scope of protection conferred by a patent. Claims define the monopoly right — what others are prevented from doing without the patent holder's permission.
การส่งมอบงานจริง Construction Law: The stage in a construction contract when the works are substantially complete and the employer can take possession. Triggers the start of the defects liability period and the release of retention.
การพัฒนาที่ได้รับอนุญาต Planning Law: Development that is automatically granted planning permission by the Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) Order 2015, subject to conditions and limitations.
Points-Based System Immigration Law: The immigration system for work-related visas requiring applicants to meet specific criteria (points) for skill level, salary threshold, English language, and sponsorship.
Personation Election & Political Law: The offence of voting as another person at an election, or applying for a ballot paper in another person's name. A corrupt practice under the Representation of the People Act 1983.
ลักษณะที่ได้รับการคุ้มครอง Equality & Discrimination Law: One of nine characteristics protected by the Equality Act 2010: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation.
หน่วยงานมาตรฐานวิชาชีพ Professional Discipline: Body overseeing health and social care professional regulators (GMC, NMC, GDC, etc.). Can refer decisions to the High Court if it considers a sanction insufficient to protect the public.

Q

Quantum Meruit Contract Law: Latin: 'as much as is deserved'. A remedy for reasonable remuneration for work done or services provided where there is no express contract, or where a contract has been partially performed.
Quantum Meruit Contract Law: Latin: 'as much as is deserved'. A claim for reasonable remuneration for work done or services provided, typically where there is no binding contract or the contract does not fix a price.
Quantum Meruit Contract Law: Latin: 'as much as is deserved'. A claim for reasonable remuneration for work done or services rendered where there is no express agreement on price, or the contract has been partly performed and then frustrated or breached.
Quantum Meruit Contract Law: Latin: 'as much as is deserved'. A claim for reasonable remuneration for work done or services provided, typically where there is no binding contract or the contract price has not been agreed.
Qualifying Period Employment Law: The minimum period of continuous employment required before an employee can bring certain claims. For unfair dismissal, the qualifying period is generally 2 years.
Qualified Right Human Rights Law: A Convention right that can be interfered with if the interference is prescribed by law, pursues a legitimate aim, and is necessary in a democratic society (proportionate). Articles 8-11 are qualified rights.
Quistclose Trust Equity & Trusts: A resulting trust arising where money is lent for a specific purpose. If the purpose fails, the money is held on trust for the lender rather than forming part of the borrower's general assets. Named after Barclays Bank v Quistclose Investments [1970].
คำสั่งเพิกถอน Administrative & Public Law: A judicial review remedy (formerly certiorari) that sets aside or nullifies a decision of a public body. The effect is to declare the decision void from the outset.
การยกเว้นแบบมีเงื่อนไข Information Law: Under FOIA 2000, an exemption where disclosure may still be required if the public interest in disclosure outweighs the public interest in maintaining the exemption.

R

Ratio Decidendi Evidence & Procedure: The legal reasoning or principle upon which a court's decision is based. The ratio is the binding part of a judgment under the doctrine of precedent.
Rescission Contract Law: The setting aside of a contract so that it is treated as if it never existed. Available for misrepresentation, undue influence, duress, and mistake. Bars to rescission include affirmation, lapse of time, third-party rights, and impossibility of restitution.
Res Judicata: Latin: 'a matter already judged'. The principle that a final judicial decision on the merits is conclusive between the parties and cannot be re-litigated. Includes cause of action estoppel and issue estoppel.
สิทธิในการอยู่อาศัย Immigration & Asylum Law: The right of British citizens to live in and enter/leave the UK freely without immigration control (Immigration Act 1971, s.1).
สิทธิในการลบข้อมูล Data Protection & Privacy Law: Also known as the 'right to be forgotten'. A data subject's right to request the deletion of personal data where it is no longer necessary, consent is withdrawn, or processing is unlawful (UK GDPR, Article 17).
Res Ipsa Loquitur Tort Law: Latin: 'the thing speaks for itself'. A doctrine of evidence in tort law allowing negligence to be inferred from the circumstances of an accident where the cause was within the defendant's control and the accident would not normally occur without negligence.
กิจกรรมที่อยู่ภายใต้การกำกับ Banking & Finance Law: An activity specified in the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 (Regulated Activities) Order 2001 that requires FCA authorisation, including accepting deposits, insurance, investment, and consumer credit.
เงินประกันผลงาน Construction Law: A percentage (typically 5%) of interim payment withheld by the employer as security for defects. Half released at practical completion, the remainder at the end of the defects liability period.
Reporting Restriction Media & Entertainment Law: A court order or statutory provision restricting the publication of certain information about court proceedings, particularly where children or sexual offence complainants are involved.
Restitution Equity & Trusts: A remedy that aims to restore the claimant to the position they were in before the defendant's unjust enrichment. Distinct from damages (which compensate for loss).
Ratification Company & Commercial Law: The act of confirming or adopting an act previously done without authority. In agency law, a principal can ratify an agent's unauthorised act, making it binding as if originally authorised.
Repudiation Contract Law: A serious breach of contract showing an intention not to be bound by it, or an anticipatory breach where a party indicates before the due date that they will not perform. The innocent party can accept the repudiation and terminate the contract.
Remoteness of Damage Contract Law: A limiting principle in contract and tort law. In contract, losses are recoverable only if they were reasonably foreseeable at the time of contracting (Hadley v Baxendale [1854]). In tort, losses must be of a reasonably foreseeable type (The Wagon Mound [1961]).
Reserved Judgment Evidence & Procedure: A judgment that is not delivered immediately at the end of a hearing but is 'reserved' for the judge to prepare and hand down at a later date. Common in complex cases requiring detailed analysis.
Restitution Equity & Trusts: A remedy aimed at reversing unjust enrichment — restoring to the claimant a benefit conferred on the defendant in circumstances where it would be unjust for the defendant to retain it. Distinct from compensation (damages).
Remoteness Tort Law: The legal principle limiting the extent of damages recoverable by a claimant. In contract law, damages are too remote unless they arise naturally from the breach or were within the reasonable contemplation of the parties at the time of the contract (Hadley v Baxendale [1854]). In tort law, damages are too remote unless the type of damage was reasonably foreseeable (The Wagon Mound [1961]).
Recklessness Criminal Law: A form of mens rea in criminal law. Following R v G [2003], the test is subjective: a person acts recklessly when they are aware of a risk that exists or will exist, and it is in the circumstances known to them unreasonable to take that risk. The objective Caldwell test was overruled.
แรนซัมแวร์ Cyber & Technology Law: Malicious software that encrypts a victim's data and demands payment (a 'ransom') for the decryption key. Deploying ransomware is a criminal offence under the Computer Misuse Act 1990 (s.3 — unauthorised acts with intent to impair). Paying a ransom may also have legal implications including potential sanctions law breaches.
Restructuring Plan Insolvency Law: A procedure introduced by the Corporate Insolvency and Governance Act 2020 (inserting Part 26A into the Companies Act 2006) allowing a company to propose a compromise with creditors that can be imposed even on dissenting classes of creditor (cross-class cram-down), subject to court approval.
Reynolds Privilege Media & Communications Law: A former common law defence to defamation, established in Reynolds v Times Newspapers [2001], protecting responsible journalism on matters of public interest. Replaced by the statutory defence of publication on a matter of public interest under s.4 Defamation Act 2013.
Reasonably Practicable Health & Safety Law: The standard applied under health and safety legislation (Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974). An employer must reduce risks so far as is reasonably practicable — meaning the cost, time, and effort of risk reduction must not be grossly disproportionate to the risk. The burden of proving reasonable practicability rests on the defendant (R v Chargot [2008]).
Rectification Equity & Trusts: An equitable remedy correcting a written document that does not accurately reflect the parties' prior agreement or common intention. Available for both contracts and voluntary instruments (e.g., wills, trusts).
Restrictive Covenant Land Law: A negative obligation attached to land, preventing the owner from doing something (e.g., building above a certain height). Enforceable in equity against successors if it 'touches and concerns' the land and the purchaser has notice.
Responsible Clinician Mental Health Law: The approved clinician with overall responsibility for a patient's case under the MHA 1983. Usually a consultant psychiatrist.
การปรับเปลี่ยนที่สมเหตุสมผล Equality & Discrimination Law: The duty on employers and service providers to make adjustments where a provision, criterion, practice, or physical feature puts a disabled person at a substantial disadvantage (ss.20-21 EA 2010).
Reasonable Grounds for Suspicion Criminal Law: The objective standard required for stop and search and arrest. The officer must have a genuine suspicion based on objective factors — not personal factors like appearance, age, race, or previous convictions alone.
Reynolds Privilege Tort Law: A former common law defence to defamation for responsible journalism on matters of public interest (Reynolds v Times Newspapers [2001]). Now replaced by s.4 Defamation Act 2013.
Right to Buy Housing Law: The right of secure tenants of at least 3 years to purchase their council home at a discount (up to 70% for a house, 50% for a flat). Established by the Housing Act 1985.
สิทธิในการเชื่อมต่อ Environmental Law: The right under s.106 Water Industry Act 1991 to have drains and sewers connected to the public sewer. The sewerage undertaker may not unreasonably refuse.
Rectification Contract Law: An equitable remedy allowing a written document to be corrected where it does not accurately reflect the parties' prior agreement due to a common mistake.
Repudiatory Breach Contract Law: A breach of a condition, or a sufficiently serious breach of an innominate term, that entitles the innocent party to treat the contract as at an end and claim damages.
Rescission Contract Law: The setting aside of a contract so that it is treated as if it never existed. Available for misrepresentation, undue influence, and duress, subject to bars (affirmation, lapse of time, third-party rights, impossibility of restitution).
Remoteness of Damage Tort Law: The legal test for whether particular consequences of a wrong are sufficiently connected to be compensable. In tort: reasonable foreseeability (Wagon Mound No 1). In contract: within the reasonable contemplation of the parties (Hadley v Baxendale).
Res Ipsa Loquitur Tort Law: Latin: 'the thing speaks for itself'. A principle in negligence where the occurrence itself implies negligence (e.g., a barrel falling from a warehouse). Shifts the evidential burden to the defendant.
Recklessness Criminal Law: A form of mens rea where the defendant is aware of a risk that a circumstance exists or that a result will occur and it is unreasonable to take that risk (subjective Cunningham recklessness). Replaced objective Caldwell recklessness (R v G [2003]).
Resulting Trust Equity & Trusts: A trust that arises by operation of law, returning property to the person who provided the consideration. Arises where there is a voluntary transfer or a purchase in another's name without evidence of gift.
Redundancy Employment Law: A dismissal attributable wholly or mainly to the employer ceasing (or intending to cease) business, or the diminishing need for employees to carry out particular work. Qualifying employees are entitled to statutory redundancy pay.
สิทธิในการอยู่อาศัย Immigration & Asylum Law: The right to live and work in the UK without immigration restrictions. British citizens and certain Commonwealth citizens have the right of abode (Immigration Act 1971, s.2).
สิทธิในการลบข้อมูล Data Protection & Privacy: The right under Article 17 UK GDPR to have personal data deleted ('right to be forgotten'). Applies where data is no longer necessary, consent is withdrawn, or processing is unlawful. Subject to exemptions.
Rule of Law Constitutional Law: The constitutional principle that everyone is subject to the law, the law must be clear and prospective, and disputes must be resolved by independent courts. Enshrined in s.1 Constitutional Reform Act 2005.
สิทธิในการอยู่อาศัย Immigration Law: The right under s.1 Immigration Act 1971 to live in and come and go freely from the UK without immigration control. Held by British citizens and certain Commonwealth citizens with a UK-born parent.
Resulting Trust Equity & Trusts: A trust that arises by operation of law where: (1) an express trust fails or does not exhaust the trust property (automatic resulting trust), or (2) a person transfers property to another without intending to make a gift (presumed resulting trust). The property is held on trust for the transferor.
Relevant Merger Situation Competition Law: Under Enterprise Act 2002, a merger situation exists where two or more enterprises cease to be distinct and either the UK turnover test (£70m) or share of supply test (25%) is met.
Rent Repayment Order Housing Law: An order under Housing and Planning Act 2016 requiring a landlord to repay up to 12 months' rent to a tenant or local authority where the landlord has committed certain housing offences including operating an unlicensed HMO.
Right to Buy Housing Law: The statutory right of secure tenants of local authorities and certain housing associations to purchase their home at a discount. Introduced by Housing Act 1980, now governed by Housing Act 1985, Part V.
การปรับเปลี่ยนที่สมเหตุสมผล Equality & Discrimination: The duty on employers, service providers, and others under ss.20-22 Equality Act 2010 to take reasonable steps to avoid substantial disadvantage caused to disabled persons by physical features, provisions/criteria/practices, or lack of auxiliary aids.
คำสั่งแก้ไข Building Safety: An order under the Building Safety Act 2022 requiring a landlord or developer to remedy specified defects in a relevant building. Can be sought by the Secretary of State, local authority, or the Building Safety Regulator.
กิจกรรมที่อยู่ภายใต้การกำกับ Financial Services: An activity specified in the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 (Regulated Activities) Order 2001 that requires FCA authorisation to carry on by way of business in the UK. Includes accepting deposits, insurance, and investment activities.
คำตัดสินเหตุผลสมควร Modern Slavery: The first threshold decision in the National Referral Mechanism: whether there are reasonable grounds to believe that a person is a potential victim of modern slavery. The standard of proof is 'I suspect but cannot prove'.
สิทธิในการอยู่อาศัย Immigration & Nationality: The right under the Immigration Act 1971 to live in and come and go freely from the UK without immigration control. Only British citizens and certain Commonwealth citizens have the right of abode.
การเรียกกลับเข้าคุก Prison & Parole: The return of a released prisoner to custody for breach of licence conditions. The Secretary of State may recall a prisoner on the recommendation of the probation service. The Parole Board reviews the recall.
Reporting Restriction Media & Entertainment Law: A court order restricting the reporting of proceedings, typically to protect the identity of children, victims of sexual offences, or in the interests of justice.
การจำกัดการค้า Sports Law: A contractual term that restricts a person's freedom to carry on their trade or profession. In sports law, transfer systems and non-compete clauses must not be an unreasonable restraint of trade.
การปรับเปลี่ยนที่สมเหตุสมผล Equality & Discrimination Law: The duty on employers and service providers under ss.20-21 Equality Act 2010 to take reasonable steps to remove disadvantages faced by disabled persons, including changes to practices, premises, or the provision of auxiliary aids.
Reasonable Grounds for Suspicion Police Powers: The objective standard required before a police officer can exercise stop and search powers (s.1 PACE 1984). Must be based on specific facts or information, not stereotypes or generalisations.
สิทธิในการเชื่อมต่อ Water & Sewerage Law: The legal right of a property owner to connect their drains to the public sewer, subject to providing notice to the sewerage undertaker (Water Industry Act 1991, s.106).
เงินประกันผลงาน Construction Law: A percentage (typically 3-5%) of the contract sum withheld by the employer as security against defects. Half is released at practical completion; the remainder after the defects liability period.
Returning Officer Election & Political Law: The person responsible for the conduct of an election in a constituency or electoral area. They ensure the election is carried out lawfully and declare the result.
การปรับเปลี่ยนที่สมเหตุสมผล Equality & Discrimination Law: The duty on employers and service providers under the Equality Act 2010 to take positive steps to remove barriers for disabled persons. Failure to make reasonable adjustments is a form of discrimination.
สิทธิยกเลิก (14 วัน) E-commerce Law: Under the Consumer Contracts Regulations 2013, consumers have a 14-day cooling-off period to cancel distance or off-premises contracts without giving any reason. The trader must refund within 14 days of receiving the returned goods.
การแก้ไข Professional Discipline: In professional discipline, the process by which a professional demonstrates insight into their failings and takes steps to address them. Evidence of remediation may result in less severe sanctions.
การต่ออายุใบอนุญาต Professional Discipline: Periodic process by which professionals demonstrate continued fitness to practise. Doctors must revalidate every 5 years; other professions have similar requirements.

S

ทนายความที่ปรึกษา: A lawyer who provides legal advice, prepares documents, and may represent clients in lower courts. Most legal work in England & Wales is carried out by solicitors.
กฎหมายลายลักษณ์อักษร: A written law passed by Parliament. Also called an Act of Parliament. Statutes take precedence over common law.
Specific Performance Equity & Trusts: An equitable remedy compelling a party to perform their contractual obligations. Granted at the court's discretion, typically for contracts involving unique subject matter (e.g., land). Not available where damages are an adequate remedy.
Subpoena: A court order requiring a person to attend court to give evidence (subpoena ad testificandum) or to produce documents (subpoena duces tecum). Now called a 'witness summons' in civil proceedings.
Statutory Nuisance Environmental Law: A nuisance defined by statute (Environmental Protection Act 1990, Part III) including noise, smoke, odours, and accumulations prejudicial to health. Local authorities have a duty to investigate and serve abatement notices.
การประเมินตนเอง Tax Law: The system by which taxpayers calculate and report their own tax liability to HMRC and file annual returns. Applies to the self-employed, company directors, and those with complex affairs.
Subject Access Request (SAR) Data Protection & Privacy Law: A request by a data subject under Article 15 UK GDPR to obtain confirmation of whether their personal data is being processed, and to receive a copy of that data. Must be responded to within one calendar month, free of charge.
Stare Decisis Evidence & Procedure: Latin: 'to stand by things decided'. The doctrine of precedent: courts are bound to follow the legal principles established in previous decisions of higher courts in the same hierarchy.
คุณภาพน่าพอใจ Consumer Protection Law: A statutory standard under the Consumer Rights Act 2015 (s.9). Goods must meet the standard a reasonable person would consider satisfactory, taking account of description, price, and all relevant circumstances.
Section 75 Claim Banking & Finance Law: Under s.75 Consumer Credit Act 1974, the credit card company is jointly and severally liable with the supplier for misrepresentation or breach of contract on purchases between £100 and £30,000.
การรับช่วงสิทธิ Insurance Law: The right of an insurer, having indemnified the insured, to step into the insured's shoes and pursue recovery against third parties responsible for the loss.
School Admissions Code Education Law: Statutory guidance governing school admissions in England. Admission authorities must comply with the Code, ensuring oversubscription criteria are clear, fair, and objective.
Strict Liability (Doping) Sports Law: In anti-doping rules, the principle that the athlete is responsible for any prohibited substance found in their sample, regardless of how it entered their body.
ระยะเวลารอ Procurement Law: A mandatory waiting period before a contracting authority can enter into a public contract, allowing unsuccessful bidders to challenge the award decision.
Set-Off Evidence & Procedure: A defence or counterclaim that allows a defendant to reduce the claimant's claim by an amount the claimant owes to the defendant. Legal set-off requires liquidated (fixed or ascertainable) cross-claims.
การรับช่วงสิทธิ Insurance Law: The right of an insurer who has paid a claim to 'step into the shoes' of the insured and pursue any rights or remedies the insured had against third parties who caused the loss.
Scott Schedule Evidence & Procedure: A tabulated document used in construction disputes and other multi-issue cases. It lists each item of claim with columns for the claimant's case, the defendant's response, and the court's decision.
คำพิพากษาโดยสรุป Evidence & Procedure: A procedure (CPR Part 24) allowing a party to obtain judgment without a full trial where the other party has no real prospect of success and there is no other compelling reason for trial. Available to both claimants and defendants.
Striking Out Evidence & Procedure: The power of the court to dismiss all or part of a claim or defence. Under CPR r.3.4, the court may strike out a statement of case that discloses no reasonable grounds, is an abuse of process, or where there has been a failure to comply with a rule, practice direction, or court order.
Statutory Demand Insolvency & Restructuring Law: A formal written demand for payment of a debt exceeding £750 (for companies) or £5,000 (for individuals). If the debtor fails to pay, secure, or compound the debt within 21 days, the creditor may present a winding-up or bankruptcy petition. Governed by the Insolvency Act 1986.
ระยะเวลารอ Procurement Law: In public procurement law, a mandatory waiting period (usually 10 calendar days) between the notification of an award decision and the conclusion of the contract. It allows unsuccessful bidders to challenge the decision before the contract is signed. Required by the Public Contracts Regulations 2015, reg 87.
Summary Offence Criminal Law: A criminal offence that can only be tried in the magistrates' court. Summary offences are generally less serious (e.g., common assault, most driving offences, minor public order offences). The maximum sentence for a single summary offence is typically 6 months' imprisonment (12 months under the Sentencing Act 2020 when in force).
Serious Disruption Prevention Order Criminal Law: A civil order introduced by the Public Order Act 2023 that may be imposed on individuals who have been convicted of protest-related offences or have contributed to serious disruption on at least two occasions. The order can impose conditions such as reporting requirements, geographical restrictions, and prohibitions on attending certain types of protest. Breach is a criminal offence.
Specific Intent Criminal Law: A criminal offence that requires proof of a particular intention, such as murder, s.18 GBH with intent, theft, and burglary. Evidence of voluntary intoxication may be relevant to whether the defendant formed the required specific intent.
Strict Liability (Criminal) Criminal Law: A criminal offence that does not require proof of mens rea (guilty mind) for one or more elements. The defendant is liable regardless of fault. Examples include most driving offences, regulatory offences, and the offence of rape of a child under 13 (R v G [2008]). Strict liability is generally confined to statutory offences, particularly those of a regulatory nature.
การกู้เรือ Maritime Law: In maritime law, a right to a reward for saving or assisting a vessel, cargo, or other property in danger at sea. Governed by the International Convention on Salvage 1989 (implemented in UK law by the Merchant Shipping Act 1995). A salvor must show voluntary service, danger to the property, and a successful or partly successful outcome.
Self-Exclusion (Gambling) Gambling & Betting Law: A scheme that allows a person to voluntarily ban themselves from gambling for a set period. GAMSTOP is the national online self-exclusion scheme; multi-operator schemes cover land-based venues. Operators are legally required to participate.
Shoulder Dystocia Medical Law: A medical complication during childbirth where the baby's shoulder becomes trapped behind the mother's pubic bone. Central to the facts of Montgomery v Lanarkshire [2015], which established the modern test for informed consent.
Summary Dismissal Employment Law: Immediate dismissal without notice, lawful only where the employee has committed an act of gross misconduct (e.g., theft, violence, serious insubordination). If the dismissal is not justified, it is wrongful dismissal.
การรับช่วงสิทธิ Insurance Law: The right of an insurer who has paid a claim to stand in the shoes of the insured and recover the loss from the party who caused it. Also applies in equity where one person pays another's debt.
Striking Off Company & Commercial Law: The removal of a company from the Companies House register, either voluntarily (by the directors applying under s.1003 Companies Act 2006) or compulsorily (by the Registrar for failure to file documents). The company ceases to exist.
Senior Managers Regime Financial Services: A regulatory framework requiring senior managers in FCA/PRA-authorised firms to be pre-approved, with a duty of responsibility. If the firm breaches regulatory requirements in their area of responsibility, the senior manager must show they took reasonable steps to prevent it.
การกักตัวบังคับ Mental Health Law: The informal term for being detained in hospital under a section of the Mental Health Act 1983, such as s.2 (assessment, up to 28 days) or s.3 (treatment, up to 6 months).
การหยุดและตรวจค้น Criminal Law: A police power under s.1 PACE 1984 to search a person or vehicle in a public place where the officer has reasonable grounds to suspect they will find stolen or prohibited articles.
Section 78 PACE Evidence & Procedure: The court may refuse to allow prosecution evidence if its admission would have such an adverse effect on the fairness of proceedings that it ought not to be admitted. The primary discretionary exclusionary rule.
Suspicious Activity Report Criminal Law: A report made to the National Crime Agency (NCA) under POCA 2002 or the Terrorism Act 2000 where a person in the regulated sector suspects money laundering or terrorist financing.
Slavery Servitude and Forced Labour Criminal Law: Offences under s.1 Modern Slavery Act 2015. Holding a person in slavery or servitude, or requiring them to perform forced or compulsory labour.
Serious Harm Test Tort Law: Under s.1 Defamation Act 2013, a statement is not defamatory unless its publication has caused or is likely to cause serious harm to the claimant's reputation. For bodies trading for profit, serious harm means serious financial loss.
การเช่าแบบมั่นคง Housing Law: A tenancy granted by a local authority (council) under the Housing Act 1985 giving the tenant security of tenure. The landlord can only obtain possession on specified grounds.
โบราณสถานที่ขึ้นทะเบียน Planning & Land Use: An archaeological site or historic building included on the Schedule of Monuments maintained by the Secretary of State. Scheduled Monument Consent is required for any works (Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979).
Section 47 Investigation Family Law: An investigation by the local authority under s.47 Children Act 1989 where there is reasonable cause to suspect a child is suffering, or likely to suffer, significant harm.
อันตรายสำคัญ Family Law: The threshold for compulsory intervention under the Children Act 1989. 'Harm' means ill-treatment or the impairment of health or development, including seeing or hearing the ill-treatment of another.
Statutory Nuisance Environmental Law: A nuisance falling within the categories in s.79 EPA 1990 (smoke, noise, odour, accumulations, etc.) that the local authority has a duty to investigate and may serve an abatement notice to stop.
Specific Performance Contract Law: An equitable remedy ordering a party to perform their contractual obligations. Granted at the court's discretion, typically where damages would be inadequate (e.g., unique goods, land).
Self-Defence Criminal Law: A complete defence available where the defendant uses reasonable force to defend themselves, another person, or property. The force must be necessary and proportionate. Criminal Law Act 1967 s.3 and common law.
Strict Liability Criminal Law: An offence that does not require proof of mens rea for one or more elements of the actus reus. Common in regulatory offences (e.g., selling alcohol to under-18s). Presumption of mens rea can be rebutted (Gammon v Attorney-General of Hong Kong [1985]).
Severance Land Law: The process of converting a joint tenancy into a tenancy in common, extinguishing the right of survivorship. Can be done by written notice (s.36 LPA 1925), mutual agreement, or course of dealing.
Shadow Director Company & Commercial Law: A person in accordance with whose directions or instructions the directors of a company are accustomed to act (s.251 CA 2006). Subject to directors' duties.
Settlement Agreement Employment Law: A legally binding agreement (formerly a compromise agreement) under which the employee agrees to waive employment claims in return for a financial payment. Must be in writing and the employee must have received independent legal advice.
Search Order Evidence & Procedure: An order requiring the respondent to permit their premises to be searched and documents/articles to be preserved. Formerly known as an Anton Piller order. An extreme remedy granted only in exceptional circumstances.
คำพิพากษาโดยสรุป Evidence & Procedure: A procedure (CPR Part 24) allowing the court to decide a claim or issue without a full trial where there is no real prospect of success and no other compelling reason for a trial.
Set-Off Banking & Finance: The right to set a debt owed to you against a debt you owe to the same person. In banking, a right of combination of accounts. In insolvency, mandatory set-off under the Insolvency Rules.
Subject Access Request Data Protection & Privacy: A request by a data subject under Article 15 UK GDPR to obtain a copy of their personal data held by a controller. Must be responded to within one month, free of charge.
Statutory Nuisance Environmental Law: A nuisance defined by statute (s.79 Environmental Protection Act 1990) including smoke, fumes, dust, smells, noise, accumulations, and premises prejudicial to health. Local authorities have a duty to investigate and may serve abatement notices.
ข้อตกลงมาตรา 106 Administrative Law: A legally binding agreement between a developer and the local planning authority under s.106 Town and Country Planning Act 1990, securing planning obligations such as affordable housing, open space, or infrastructure contributions as a condition of planning permission.
Separation of Powers Constitutional Law: The constitutional doctrine that the functions of government should be divided between the legislature (Parliament), the executive (government), and the judiciary (courts). Not strictly observed in the UK but reinforced by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005.
โทษรอลงอาญา Criminal Law: A custodial sentence of up to 2 years that is not served immediately. The offender remains in the community subject to requirements. If they commit a further offence during the suspension period, the original sentence is usually activated.
Special Guardianship Order Family Law: An order under s.14A Children Act 1989 giving the special guardian parental responsibility which they can exercise to the exclusion of others (except another special guardian). Provides greater security than a child arrangements order without severing legal ties with birth parents as adoption does.
Substantial Lessening of Competition Competition Law: The test applied by the CMA in merger control. A merger may be prohibited or require remedies if it results, or may be expected to result, in a substantial lessening of competition in a UK market.
Section 8 Notice Housing Law: A notice served by a landlord under Housing Act 1988, s.8 seeking possession of an assured tenancy by proving one or more grounds in Schedule 2 (e.g., rent arrears, breach of tenancy, anti-social behaviour).
Section 21 Notice Housing Law: A notice served by a landlord under Housing Act 1988, s.21 to end an assured shorthold tenancy without proving any fault. Requires at least 2 months' notice and compliance with various statutory requirements.
การเช่าแบบมั่นคง Housing Law: A tenancy held by most local authority housing tenants under Housing Act 1985. Provides strong security of tenure; the landlord may only recover possession on limited statutory grounds and with a court order.
Scheme Funding Pensions: The requirement under Pensions Act 2004 for defined benefit schemes to have sufficient assets to meet their technical provisions (liabilities). Trustees must prepare a statement of funding principles and recovery plan if in deficit.
Sanction Welfare: A reduction in benefit (typically for UC) imposed when a claimant fails to meet their work-related requirements without good reason. May last from 7 days to up to 1,095 days for repeated higher-level failures.
State Pension Age Welfare: The age at which a person becomes entitled to claim the State Pension. Currently 66, increasing to 67 by 2028 and scheduled to rise to 68 between 2044 and 2046.
State Pension Welfare: A regular payment from the government in retirement based on National Insurance contributions. The new single-tier State Pension (from 2016) requires 35 qualifying years for the full amount.
การกู้เรือ Maritime Law: The rescue of a ship, its cargo, or other property from peril at sea. A salvor who successfully saves maritime property is entitled to a salvage reward assessed by the court.
การพิจารณาโดยย่อ Military Law: A disciplinary hearing conducted by a commanding officer for minor service offences. It provides a quicker alternative to court martial for less serious matters.
การร้องเรียนทางทหาร Military Law: A formal grievance raised by a member of the armed forces about any matter relating to their service, handled under the Armed Forces (Service Complaints) system.
ใบรับรองความปลอดภัย Sports Law: A certificate issued by a local authority under the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975 specifying the terms and conditions for safe use of a designated sports ground, including maximum capacity.
การกักตัวบังคับ Mental Health Law: The informal term for compulsory admission and detention under the Mental Health Act 1983. A patient may be 'sectioned' under s.2 (assessment, up to 28 days), s.3 (treatment, up to 6 months), or s.4 (emergency, 72 hours).
Second Opinion Appointed Doctor Mental Health Law: A psychiatrist appointed by the Care Quality Commission to provide an independent second opinion on whether a detained patient should receive certain treatments (particularly medication after 3 months) without consent.
การหยุดและตรวจค้น Police Powers: The power of a police constable under s.1 PACE 1984 to search a person or vehicle for stolen or prohibited articles, provided they have reasonable grounds for suspicion. The officer must give their name, station, and grounds for the search.
Suspicious Activity Report Fraud & Economic Crime: A report (SAR) made to the National Crime Agency by a person in the regulated sector (banks, solicitors, accountants) when they know or suspect that a transaction involves the proceeds of crime or terrorist financing.
โทษรอลงอาญา Sentencing: A sentence of imprisonment that is not served immediately. The offender is released subject to conditions for an 'operational period' of up to 2 years. If they breach the conditions or commit a further offence, the suspended sentence may be activated.
อันตรายร้ายแรง Defamation & Privacy: The threshold in s.1 Defamation Act 2013: a statement is not defamatory unless its publication has caused or is likely to cause serious harm to the claimant's reputation. For trading bodies, serious harm means serious financial loss.
คำสั่งศาลพิเศษ Defamation & Privacy: An injunction that prohibits publication of the information and also prohibits reporting the existence of the injunction itself. Rare and controversial, subject to strict necessity and proportionality requirements following the Neuberger Report (2011).
อันตรายสำคัญ Childcare & Safeguarding: The threshold for state intervention under s.31 Children Act 1989. 'Harm' means ill-treatment or impairment of health or development. 'Significant' is assessed by comparing the child's health or development with that which could reasonably be expected of a similar child.
การเช่าแบบมั่นคง Social Housing: A tenancy held by a council tenant under the Housing Act 1985. Provides strong security of tenure; the council can only seek possession on limited grounds.
คำสั่งป้องกันการค้าทาสและค้ามนุษย์ Modern Slavery: A civil preventive order under s.14 Modern Slavery Act 2015 that can be made against a person convicted of a slavery or trafficking offence, imposing restrictions on their activities to prevent further offending.
ผลประโยชน์เพียงพอ Administrative & Public Law: The standing requirement for judicial review under s.31(3) Senior Courts Act 1981. The applicant must demonstrate a sufficient interest in the matter to which the application relates.
สถานะไร้สัญชาติ Immigration & Nationality: The condition of not being considered a national by any state. International law (1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness) and domestic law generally prohibit rendering a person stateless, though the UK has exceptions for national security.
สถานะผู้ตั้งถิ่นฐาน Immigration & Nationality: Immigration status confirming indefinite leave to remain in the UK. Under the EU Settlement Scheme, EU nationals who were resident in the UK by 31 December 2020 could apply for settled status (after 5 years' residence) or pre-settled status.
ดูหมิ่นศาลแบบรับผิดเด็ดขาด Media & Entertainment Law: Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981, publications creating a substantial risk of serious prejudice to active court proceedings are punishable regardless of the publisher's intention.
ความคุ้มกันของรัฐ International Law: The doctrine that a sovereign state cannot be sued in the courts of another state without its consent. In the UK, governed by the State Immunity Act 1978, with exceptions for commercial transactions and personal injury.
คณะกรรมการมาตรฐาน Local Government Law: A committee of a local authority responsible for promoting and maintaining high standards of ethical conduct by councillors, and dealing with complaints of breach of the code of conduct.
โบราณสถานที่ขึ้นทะเบียน Heritage & Listed Buildings: A monument of national importance protected under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. Scheduled Monument Consent is required for any works.
กฎเฉพาะ Extradition & Mutual Legal Assistance: The rule that a person extradited may only be prosecuted, sentenced, or detained for the offence for which extradition was granted, not for any other prior offence.
ใบอนุญาตคลื่นความถี่ Telecommunications Law: A licence issued by Ofcom under the Wireless Telegraphy Act 2006 authorising the use of radio frequencies. Essential for mobile networks, broadcasting, and other wireless services.
ประเทศที่สามที่ปลอดภัย Refugee & Asylum Law: A country through which an asylum seeker has passed and where they could have claimed asylum. Under the Nationality and Borders Act 2022 and Illegal Migration Act 2023, claims may be deemed inadmissible.
การคุ้มครองเสริม Refugee & Asylum Law: International protection for persons who do not qualify as refugees but who face a real risk of serious harm (death penalty, torture, serious individual threat from armed conflict) if returned.
ผู้ประสานงานความต้องการการศึกษาพิเศษ Education Law: Special Educational Needs Coordinator — a teacher in a school responsible for coordinating provision for pupils with special educational needs and disabilities.
ที่ตั้งอนุญาโตตุลาการ Arbitration & ADR: The juridical home of the arbitration, determining the procedural law governing the arbitration and the court with supervisory jurisdiction.
ความผิดปกติร้ายแรง Arbitration & ADR: A ground for challenging an arbitral award under s.68 Arbitration Act 1996 — a defect in procedure or the award that has caused or will cause substantial injustice.
การร้องเรียนทางทหาร Military Law: A formal complaint by a member of the armed forces about matters affecting them personally (e.g., bullying, discrimination, terms of service). Overseen by the Service Complaints Ombudsman.
การพิจารณาโดยย่อ Military Law: A relatively informal disciplinary hearing conducted by the commanding officer for minor service offences under the Armed Forces Act 2006. Limited sentencing powers.
ระยะเวลารอ Procurement Law: A mandatory waiting period (usually 10 days) between notifying bidders of a contract award decision and entering into the contract, allowing unsuccessful bidders to challenge the decision.
กฎเฉพาะ Extradition Law: The principle that a person extradited may only be prosecuted for the offence(s) for which extradition was granted, unless the requesting state obtains consent for additional charges.
แนวทางการพิพากษา Sentencing Law: Definitive guidelines produced by the Sentencing Council that courts must follow unless it would be contrary to the interests of justice. They set category ranges based on harm and culpability.
โทษรอลงอาญา Sentencing Law: A custodial sentence of up to 2 years that is suspended for a period (the operational period). The offender serves the sentence in the community but may be imprisoned if they breach conditions or commit another offence.
การกักตัวบังคับ Mental Health Law: The informal term for compulsory detention in a psychiatric hospital under the Mental Health Act 1983 — most commonly under Section 2 (assessment, 28 days) or Section 3 (treatment, 6 months).
เกณฑ์ความเสียหายร้ายแรง Defamation & Privacy: The requirement under s.1 Defamation Act 2013 that a statement must cause or be likely to cause 'serious harm' to the claimant's reputation before it is actionable as defamation.
กฎการเผยแพร่ครั้งเดียว Defamation & Privacy: Under s.8 Defamation Act 2013, the limitation period for defamation runs from the date of first publication, not each subsequent access — preventing perpetual liability for online content.
โบราณสถานที่ขึ้นทะเบียน Heritage Law: A monument of national importance protected under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. Scheduled Monument Consent is required for any works.
อันตรายสำคัญ Childcare & Safeguarding: The threshold for compulsory intervention under s.31 Children Act 1989. The child must be suffering, or likely to suffer, significant harm attributable to the care given or to being beyond parental control.
สิทธิปฏิเสธระยะสั้น Consumer Protection Law: The consumer's right under the Consumer Rights Act 2015 to reject goods that are faulty (not of satisfactory quality, fit for purpose, or as described) within 30 days of delivery and receive a full refund.
การรับช่วงสิทธิ Insurance Law: The right of an insurer, having paid a claim, to step into the shoes of the insured and pursue any claims the insured may have against third parties responsible for the loss.
การประเมินตนเอง Tax Law: The system by which individuals and trustees calculate and pay their own Income Tax and Capital Gains Tax. Returns must be filed by 31 January following the tax year.
ข้อตกลงมาตรา 106 Planning Law: A planning obligation under s.106 TCPA 1990 — a legally binding agreement between the developer and local planning authority requiring the developer to provide infrastructure, affordable housing, or other public benefits.
ความคุ้มกันของรัฐ International Law: The principle that foreign states are generally immune from the jurisdiction of UK courts. Governed by the State Immunity Act 1978, with exceptions for commercial transactions, employment, and personal injury.
Suspicious Activity Report (SAR) Fraud & Economic Crime: A report made to the National Crime Agency by a person in the regulated sector who suspects money laundering or terrorist financing. Failure to report is itself a criminal offence under POCA 2002.
Section 25 Notice Landlord & Tenant Law: A notice served by a landlord under s.25 of the Landlord and Tenant Act 1954, either proposing new terms for a business tenancy or giving notice that the landlord opposes renewal on statutory grounds.
Section 45 Defence Modern Slavery & Trafficking: A statutory defence under s.45 Modern Slavery Act 2015 for victims of trafficking or slavery who are compelled to commit criminal offences as a direct consequence of their exploitation.
กับดักสมัครสมาชิก E-commerce Law: A practice where consumers are unknowingly enrolled in recurring payment schemes. The CMA has taken enforcement action and the Digital Markets, Competition and Consumers Act 2024 introduces new protections.
การถอนชื่อออกจากทะเบียน Professional Discipline: The most serious sanction in professional disciplinary proceedings — removal of the professional's name from the register, prohibiting them from practising. Usually reserved for serious misconduct, dishonesty, or sexual misconduct.

T

ละเมิด Tort Law: A civil wrong (other than breach of contract) for which the law provides a remedy, usually damages. Common torts include negligence, nuisance, and defamation.
ทรัสต์ Equity & Trusts: An arrangement where a person (trustee) holds property for the benefit of another (beneficiary). Trusts are governed by equity.
Trespass Tort Law: A direct and intentional interference with person (trespass to the person: assault, battery, false imprisonment), land (trespass to land: entering without permission), or goods (trespass to goods: interfering with chattels).
Tax Avoidance Tax Law: The use of lawful means to minimise tax liability. Distinguished from tax evasion (criminal dishonesty). May be counteracted by the General Anti-Abuse Rule (GAAR) if 'abusive'.
Tax Evasion Tax Law: The criminal offence of dishonestly concealing income, gains, or assets to reduce tax liability. Punishable under the Fraud Act 2006 and the Criminal Finances Act 2017.
เครื่องหมายการค้า Intellectual Property: A sign (word, logo, shape, colour, sound) that distinguishes the goods or services of one trader from another. Registered at the UKIPO for 10 years, renewable indefinitely (Trade Marks Act 1994).
TEN (Temporary Event Notice) Licensing Law: A notice under the Licensing Act 2003 permitting licensable activities at unlicensed premises for up to 168 hours, for up to 499 persons.
Totting Up Road Traffic & Motoring Law: The process under s.35 of the Road Traffic Offenders Act 1988 by which a driver who accumulates 12 or more penalty points on their licence within three years faces mandatory disqualification for at least six months. The court may refrain from disqualifying only if exceptional hardship is proved.
Transferred Malice Criminal Law: The doctrine in criminal law whereby a defendant who intends to commit a crime against one person but accidentally commits it against another is still guilty. The mens rea is 'transferred' from the intended victim to the actual victim. Established in R v Latimer (1886). The doctrine does not apply where the intended crime and the actual crime are of a different type (R v Pembliton (1874)).
ความสามารถในการทำพินัยกรรม Wills, Probate & Succession: The mental ability required to make a valid will. The test was established in Banks v Goodfellow (1870): the testator must understand the nature of the act, the extent of their property, and the claims of potential beneficiaries, and must not be suffering from a disorder of the mind that influences the dispositions.
TPIM (มาตรการต่อต้านก่อการร้าย) Counter-Terrorism: A Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measure — a civil order imposed by the Home Secretary on an individual suspected of involvement in terrorism-related activity, where prosecution is not possible. Restrictions may include relocation, curfew, electronic monitoring, and restrictions on association and communication. Introduced by the Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures Act 2011.
TUPE Employment Law: Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 2006. Protect employees' terms and conditions when the business or undertaking they work for transfers to a new employer. Dismissal by reason of the transfer is automatically unfair.
Tracing Equity & Trusts: An equitable process of following value through substitutions (e.g., money paid into a bank account, used to buy property). Distinguished from 'following' (tracking the same asset). Tracing allows a claimant to assert a proprietary claim to a substitute asset.
ความโปร่งใสในห่วงโซ่อุปทาน Company & Commercial Law: The duty under s.54 Modern Slavery Act 2015 for commercial organisations with turnover of £36m+ to publish an annual statement on steps taken to ensure their supply chains are free from modern slavery.
Trade Effluent Consent Environmental Law: Consent required from the sewerage undertaker before discharging trade effluent (liquid waste from manufacturing, treatment, or cleaning processes) into the public sewer.
Transferred Malice Criminal Law: The principle that if the defendant intends to commit a crime against one person but accidentally affects another, the mens rea is transferred to the actual victim (R v Latimer [1886]).
Tenancy in Common Land Law: A form of co-ownership where each co-owner has a distinct (though undivided) share that can be left by will. No right of survivorship. The default in equity where co-owners contribute unequally.
TUPE Employment Law: Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 2006. Protects employees' terms and conditions when a business or service provision changes hands. Automatic transfer of employment contracts.
เครื่องหมายการค้า Intellectual Property: A sign (word, logo, shape, colour, sound) used to distinguish the goods or services of one trader from those of another. Registered at the UK IPO for 10 years (renewable). Governed by the Trade Marks Act 1994.
Transaction at an Undervalue Company & Commercial Law: A transaction entered into by a company for no consideration or at a significantly less value than the consideration provided by the company, within 2 years before insolvency. May be set aside by the liquidator under s.238 Insolvency Act 1986.
หลักการรวมโทษ Criminal Law: The sentencing principle that the overall sentence for multiple offences must be just and proportionate to the totality of the offending behaviour. The court should consider whether the aggregate sentence is proportionate.
Tracing Equity & Trusts: An equitable process of following the value of property through various transformations (e.g., money paid into a bank account, used to buy shares). Allows a claimant to assert a proprietary claim over substitute assets. Requires a fiduciary relationship for equitable tracing (Re Diplock [1948]).
Tenancy Deposit Protection Housing Law: Under Housing Act 2004, landlords of ASTs must protect deposits in a government-approved scheme within 30 days and provide prescribed information. Failure may result in penalties of 1-3 times the deposit.
The Pensions Regulator Pensions: The statutory body responsible for regulating UK workplace pensions, established by Pensions Act 2004. Powers include issuing improvement notices, contribution notices, and financial support directions.
Transfer Value Pensions: The capital sum that may be transferred from one pension scheme to another when a member moves. Defined benefit members have a statutory right to a cash equivalent transfer value (CETV).
Trivial Commutation Pensions: The ability to convert small pension pots into a one-off cash lump sum if total pension savings are below a threshold. Allows members to simplify their affairs rather than receive very small regular payments.
ค่าตัวนักกีฬา Sports Law: A payment made by one sports club to another for the transfer of a player's registration. The Bosman ruling (1995) abolished mandatory transfer fees for out-of-contract players in the EU.
หลักการรวมโทษ Sentencing: The principle that when an offender is sentenced for multiple offences, the overall sentence must be just and proportionate to the totality of the offending behaviour. The court must 'step back' and consider whether consecutive sentences produce a crushing total.
การค้ามนุษย์ Modern Slavery: Under s.2 Modern Slavery Act 2015, arranging or facilitating the travel of another person with a view to their exploitation, including sexual exploitation, forced labour, slavery, servitude, or organ harvesting.
ความโปร่งใสในห่วงโซ่อุปทาน Modern Slavery: The obligation under s.54 Modern Slavery Act 2015 for commercial organisations with annual turnover of £36m+ to publish a statement setting out steps taken to ensure slavery and human trafficking are not taking place in their business or supply chains.
แจ้งจัดงานชั่วคราว Licensing Law: A notice under the Licensing Act 2003 allowing licensable activities at unlicensed premises for up to 168 hours (7 days), for up to 499 persons, up to 15 TENs per premises per year.
ความสามารถในการทำพินัยกรรม Wills, Probate & Succession: The mental capacity required to make a valid will. The testator must understand the nature of making a will, the extent of their property, the claims on their estate, and not be affected by a disorder of mind (Banks v Goodfellow [1870]).
TPIM (มาตรการต่อต้านก่อการร้าย) Counter-Terrorism Law: Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measure — a civil order imposing restrictions on an individual suspected of terrorism-related activity where prosecution is not possible. Restrictions may include relocation, curfews, and electronic monitoring.
ความสามารถในการทำพินัยกรรม Wills & Probate: The mental capacity required to make a valid will. The test (Banks v Goodfellow (1870)) requires the testator to understand the nature of making a will, the extent of their property, and the claims to which they ought to give effect.
Transparency Statement Modern Slavery & Trafficking: A statement required under s.54 Modern Slavery Act 2015 from commercial organisations with turnover of £36 million or more, setting out the steps taken to prevent modern slavery in their business and supply chains.
การเรียกร้อง TOLATA Cohabitation Law: A claim under the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996 to establish, quantify, or enforce a beneficial interest in property. Commonly used by cohabitants in property disputes.

U

Ultra Vires Administrative & Public Law: Beyond the powers. An act by a public body or company that exceeds its legal authority is ultra vires and may be declared void.
Undue Influence Equity & Trusts: Equitable doctrine allowing a contract or gift to be set aside where one party exercised improper pressure or influence over the other. May be actual (proven) or presumed (arising from a relationship of trust and confidence).
สุจริตอย่างยิ่ง Insurance Law: The former principle (uberrimae fidei) requiring parties to insurance contracts to act with the utmost good faith. Replaced for commercial insurance by the duty of fair presentation (Insurance Act 2015).
เครดิตสากล Social Welfare & Benefits Law: A means-tested benefit replacing six legacy benefits (Income Support, JSA, ESA, Housing Benefit, CTC, WTC), introduced by the Welfare Reform Act 2012. Paid monthly as a single household payment.
Unjust Enrichment Equity & Trusts: A cause of action arising where the defendant has been enriched at the claimant's expense and it would be unjust for the defendant to retain the benefit. The four-part test was set out in Banque Financière de la Cité v Parc (Battersea) Ltd [1999].
Unjust Enrichment Equity & Trusts: A cause of action arising where the defendant has been enriched at the claimant's expense in circumstances that the law regards as unjust, and there is no defence. The four elements were set out in Banque Financière de la Cité v Parc (Battersea) [1999].
Ultra Vires (Company Law) Company & Commercial Law: Beyond the powers of a company as defined in its constitution. Historically, acts outside a company's objects clause were void. The Companies Act 2006 (s.39) largely abolished the ultra vires doctrine for companies, providing that the validity of an act cannot be questioned on the ground of lack of capacity.
Unfair Dismissal Employment Law: A statutory claim under s.94 Employment Rights Act 1996. An employee with 2+ years' service has the right not to be unfairly dismissed. The employer must show a fair reason and that it acted reasonably in treating it as sufficient reason for dismissal.
Universal Service Obligation (Telecoms) Cyber & Technology Law: The obligation under the Communications Act 2003 to provide basic telecommunications services (including broadband at a minimum speed) to all premises in the UK.
Unfair Prejudice Petition Company & Commercial Law: A petition under s.994 Companies Act 2006 by a member alleging the company's affairs are being conducted in a manner that is unfairly prejudicial to their interests. The most common remedy is a buy-out order.
Undue Influence Equity & Trusts: An equitable doctrine rendering a transaction voidable where one party has exercised influence over another in a way that is unconscionable. Actual undue influence (overt acts) or presumed undue influence (relationship of trust plus disadvantageous transaction). Important in bank guarantee cases (Royal Bank of Scotland v Etridge (No 2) [2002]).
Undertaking Competition Law: In competition law, any entity engaged in economic activity, regardless of legal status or how it is financed. Includes companies, partnerships, sole traders, public bodies when acting commercially, and even individuals.
เครดิตสากล Welfare: A means-tested benefit under Welfare Reform Act 2012 replacing six legacy benefits. Paid monthly to working-age claimants, combining support for housing, children, disability, and carers into a single payment.
Unexplained Wealth Order Fraud & Economic Crime: An order under Part 1 of the Criminal Finances Act 2017 requiring a person to explain the origin of property worth over £50,000 where there are reasonable grounds to suspect it was obtained through unlawful conduct.
การเข้าถึงโดยไม่ได้รับอนุญาต Cyber & Digital Law: Under s.1 Computer Misuse Act 1990, the offence of causing a computer to perform any function with intent to secure unauthorised access to any program or data. Maximum 2 years' imprisonment.
ภาระหน้าที่บริการสากล Telecommunications Law: The obligation ensuring basic electronic communications services are available throughout the UK at an affordable price. Currently includes broadband at a minimum speed.
เครดิตสากล Social Welfare Law: A single means-tested benefit replacing six legacy benefits: Income Support, income-based JSA, income-related ESA, Housing Benefit, Child Tax Credit, and Working Tax Credit (Welfare Reform Act 2012).
การปฏิบัติทางการค้าที่ไม่เป็นธรรม Consumer Protection Law: A commercial practice that contravenes the requirements of professional diligence and materially distorts the economic behaviour of the average consumer. Prohibited by the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008.
สุจริตอย่างยิ่ง Insurance Law: The historical principle (uberrima fides) requiring both parties to an insurance contract to act with the utmost good faith. Now largely replaced by the duty of fair presentation under the Insurance Act 2015.

V

ความรับผิดแทน Tort Law: The legal responsibility of one person for the wrongful acts of another, typically an employer for the torts of an employee committed during the course of employment.
โมฆะ: Having no legal effect from the outset. A void contract is treated as if it never existed. Distinguished from 'voidable', which is valid until one party elects to set it aside.
Voidable: Valid and enforceable until one party exercises a right to set it aside (e.g., for misrepresentation, duress, or undue influence). The contract remains in force until rescinded.
Value Added Tax (VAT) Tax Law: An indirect tax charged on the supply of goods and services at each stage of production and distribution. Standard rate: 20%. Reduced rate: 5%. Zero-rated supplies are taxable but at 0%.
Volenti Non Fit Injuria Tort Law: Latin: 'to a willing person, no injury is done'. A complete defence in tort where the claimant voluntarily assumed the risk of harm. The claimant must have known of the risk and freely consented to it.
Variation Construction Law: A change to the scope of works under a construction contract. Standard forms typically provide mechanisms for valuing variations and adjusting the contract sum and completion date.
Voidable Contract Law: A legal act or transaction that is valid and effective until it is set aside (avoided) by the party entitled to do so. Distinguished from 'void' (having no legal effect from the outset). A contract induced by misrepresentation is typically voidable — the innocent party may choose to rescind it or affirm it.
Verdict (Conclusion) Coroners & Inquests: The formal finding of a coroner or inquest jury as to how a person died. Standard conclusions include: natural causes, accident/misadventure, suicide, unlawful killing, lawful killing, industrial disease, drug/alcohol related, and open verdict. A narrative conclusion sets out the circumstances in the coroner's or jury's own words.
Victimisation (Equality) Equality & Discrimination Law: Subjecting a person to a detriment because they have done or may do a protected act, such as bringing a discrimination claim or giving evidence (s.27 EA 2010).
Volenti Non Fit Injuria Tort Law: Latin: 'no injury is done to one who consents'. A complete defence in tort where the claimant voluntarily assumed the risk of injury with full knowledge of the nature and extent of the risk.
Voidable Preference Company & Commercial Law: A transaction by an insolvent company that puts a creditor in a better position than they would have been in on a winding up, made within 6 months of insolvency (2 years for connected persons), and influenced by a desire to prefer. The liquidator may apply to court to reverse it (s.239 IA 1986).
Vertical Agreement Competition Law: An agreement between undertakings operating at different levels of the supply chain (e.g., manufacturer and retailer). Generally less harmful to competition than horizontal agreements and may benefit from block exemption.
บัตรประจำตัวผู้มีสิทธิเลือกตั้ง Election Law: A requirement under the Elections Act 2022 for voters at polling stations in Great Britain to show an approved form of photographic identification before being issued a ballot paper.
Voluntary Attendance Police Powers: Where a person attends a police station voluntarily (not under arrest) to assist with enquiries. The person is free to leave at any time and is entitled to legal advice. If arrested, PACE detention time limits begin.
Vento Guidelines Equality & Discrimination Law: Judicial guidelines setting the range of compensation for injury to feelings in discrimination cases: lower band (less serious), middle band, and upper band (most serious). Updated periodically by the Presidents of the Employment Tribunals.

W

Waiver: The voluntary relinquishment or abandonment of a known right. In contract law, waiver may prevent a party from insisting on strict performance of a term they have previously chosen not to enforce.
Winding Up Company & Commercial Law: The process of bringing a company to an end. May be compulsory (by court order on petition, typically for inability to pay debts) or voluntary (by shareholders' or creditors' resolution). Governed by the Insolvency Act 1986.
Without Prejudice: A rule of evidence preventing statements made in a genuine attempt to settle a dispute from being put before the court as evidence of admissions. Protects the parties' ability to negotiate freely.
Writ: Historically, a formal written order issued by a court commanding a person to do or refrain from doing a specified act. In modern practice, writs have been largely replaced by claim forms, though prerogative writs (habeas corpus) survive.
Waiver Contract Law: The voluntary relinquishment of a known right. A party may waive a contractual right (e.g., strict compliance with a time clause) either by express agreement or by conduct.
Winding Up Company & Commercial Law: The process of dissolving a company and distributing its assets. May be voluntary (by shareholders' or creditors' resolution) or compulsory (by court order, typically on a petition by a creditor for unpaid debts exceeding £750).
Without Prejudice Evidence & Procedure: A rule that prevents statements made in a genuine attempt to settle a dispute from being put before the court as evidence. Protects the parties' negotiating positions and encourages settlement.
Writ Evidence & Procedure: A formal written order issued in the name of the Crown, a court, or other authority. Historically the means of commencing proceedings, now replaced by claim forms under the CPR. Some prerogative writs survive (e.g., habeas corpus).
Winding-Up Petition Insolvency & Restructuring Law: An application to the court for an order that a company be wound up (liquidated). May be presented by creditors, the company itself, directors, or the Secretary of State. The most common ground is inability to pay debts (Insolvency Act 1986, s.122(1)(f)).
Wrongful Trading Insolvency Law: A civil liability under s.214 Insolvency Act 1986. A director of a company in insolvent liquidation may be ordered to make a personal contribution to the company's assets if they allowed the company to continue trading when they knew, or ought to have concluded, there was no reasonable prospect of avoiding insolvent liquidation.
Wrongful Dismissal Employment Law: A common law claim for breach of contract where an employer dismisses an employee without giving the contractual or statutory notice period, or in breach of contractual procedures. Damages are limited to the notice period.
ความไม่สมเหตุสมผลแบบเวดเนสเบอรี Administrative & Public Law: The standard of irrationality in judicial review, from Associated Provincial Picture Houses v Wednesbury Corporation [1948]. A decision is Wednesbury unreasonable if it is so unreasonable that no reasonable authority could have come to it. This is a high threshold.
Water Undertaker Environmental Law: A company appointed under the Water Industry Act 1991 to provide water supply services in a particular area. The main water undertakers are the privatised water companies.
Waiver Contract Law: The voluntary relinquishment of a known right. In contract law, a party may waive a breach or a contractual condition, preventing them from later relying on it.
Wrongful Trading Company & Commercial Law: Under s.214 Insolvency Act 1986, a director may be personally liable for company debts if they allowed the company to continue trading when they knew or ought to have concluded there was no reasonable prospect of avoiding insolvent liquidation.
Whistleblowing Employment Law: Protected disclosures under the Employment Rights Act 1996 (Part IVA). Workers who make qualifying disclosures about wrongdoing are protected from detriment and dismissal.
Without Prejudice Evidence & Procedure: A rule preventing statements made in genuine settlement negotiations from being adduced in court as evidence against the party making them. Encourages parties to speak freely in negotiations.
Wrongful Trading Company & Commercial Law: Under s.214 Insolvency Act 1986, a director may be personally liable for company debts if they allowed the company to continue trading when they knew or ought to have concluded there was no reasonable prospect of avoiding insolvent liquidation, and did not take every step to minimise loss to creditors.
Watershed Broadcasting: The time (9pm in the UK) before which material unsuitable for children should not generally be shown on television. The transition to adult content should be gradual; strongest material should appear later.
Work Capability Assessment Welfare: The assessment determining whether a claimant has limited capability for work or work-related activity, qualifying them for ESA or the limited capability elements of UC. Conducted by an independent healthcare professional.
ความไม่สมเหตุสมผลแบบเวดเนสเบอรี Administrative & Public Law: The traditional standard of review in judicial review: a decision is unlawful if it is so unreasonable that no reasonable decision-maker could have come to it (Associated Provincial Picture Houses v Wednesbury [1948]).
Wrongful Trading Insolvency & Restructuring Law: Under s.214 Insolvency Act 1986, directors may be personally liable if they continued trading when they knew or ought to have concluded there was no reasonable prospect of avoiding insolvent liquidation.
น้ำประปาที่สะอาด Water & Sewerage Law: Water that meets the standards set by the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2016. Water companies have a duty to supply wholesome water for domestic purposes under s.52 WIA 1991.
หลักสวัสดิภาพ Childcare & Safeguarding: The paramount principle in children's cases: the child's welfare is the court's paramount consideration in any decision about their upbringing (s.1 Children Act 1989).

Z

Zero-Hours Contract Employment Law: A contract under which the employer is not obliged to provide any minimum working hours and the worker is not obliged to accept any work offered. Workers on zero-hours contracts have employment rights including NMW, holiday pay, and protection from discrimination.